popular sovereignty- The political idea that power comes from the people, not God, and that
it remains with the people.
separation of powers- The political concept, advocated by Montesquieu, where government’s
powers are divided into different branches, such as executive and
legislative.
American Revolution (1775 – 1783)- The first successful revolt by a colony against rule by a European mother country. The 13 British colonies revolted against foreign rule.
It ended in an American victory and the establishment of the first
federal republic in history.
French and Indian War (1754 – 1763)- This was the North American theater (region) of the European conflict called the Seven Years’ War. It was fought between Britain and its
American colonies against France and its French colonies in North
America. Most Native Americans fought for the French side in the
conflict. It ended in a major british victory.
Declaration of Independence- One of the most important political documents ever written, it was inspired by the social contract theory of Locke and was written by
Thomas Jefferson. It lays out the reasons for the American rejection of
British rule.
First Estate- Pre-Revolutionary term for the Catholic clergy of France.
Second Estate- Pre-Revolutionary term for the nobility of France.
Third Estate- Pre-Revolutionary term for the masses of French society prior to the
Revolution. It included peasants, bourgeoisie, and the urban poor.
peasants- One of the lower classes, they are rural, agricultural free laborers.
sans-culottes- This was a slang term that referred to the urban working poor.
bourgeoisie- Term referring to the urban, educated middle and upper classes.
taille- A hated tax paid only by the common people of France, not by the
clergy or the nobility.
Estates-General- The historic parliament of France, it was a body that the French king
could consult at will. It lacked the same type of powers that the British
Parliament possessed.
cahiers de doleances- These were lists of grievances drawn up by each of the three estates;
they were reform suggestions and included demands such as fair
taxation and equal voting rights.
National Assembly- The delegates of the Third Estate declared the end of the Estates-
General and the formation of the National Assembly as the new
parliament of France. It was dominated by the bourgeoisie.
Tennis Court Oath- On June 20, 1789 the King ordered that the National Assembly be
locked out of their meeting room. The delegates regrouped on a tennis
court at Versailles and swore not to disband until they had written a
constitution for France.
militias- A military force that is made up of civilians rather than soldiers, usually
put together in times of emergency.
Bastille- A large fortress in the heart of Paris that served as a hated prison. On
July 14, 1789 a Paris mob stormed the Bastille in search of weapons.
The mob killed several soldiers. This is a major event of the
Revolution.
Great Fear- In the summer of 1789 a panic swept across France that the nobility
was going to crush the new Revolution. Angry peasant mobs attacked
the estates of the nobles and burned many to the ground.
manorial obligations- These were ancient requirements that peasants needed to work
several days each month on the lands of the nobility.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen- Written by delegates of the National Assembly during the summer of 1789, this is the first constitution of France. It promised equal rights for
all French men.
Civil Constitution of the Clergy- This is considered to be one of the first mistakes of the Revolution.This law required all French Catholic clergy to swear an oath of loyalty
to the nation over the Church. It turned the Church into an enemy of
the Revolution.
metric system- The most common system of measurement used in the world. It uses
the meter, liter, and gram as units of measure. It was first adopted by
France during the Revolution.
“Liberty, Equality, Fraternity”- This became the famous three-word motto of the Revolution; it sums up the ideals of the Revolution.
Women’s March- On October 5, 1789 thousands of Parisian poor women marched to
Versailles to demand that King Louis XVI do something to lower the
price of bread. It grew violent. The women forced the King and his
family to leave Versailles and return to Paris.
Haitian Revolution- This was the first successful slave revolt against European rule to
occur. It began in 1791 when Black slaves overwhelmed the French
planters in the Caribbean colony of Saint-Domingue. The slave rebels
established the first Black ruled republic in world history and
successfully defended their independence against Napoleon’s attempt
to reestablish French control.
inflation- A general increase in prices and a decline in the purchasing power of
the money.
emigres- French term for those French nobles who fled from revolutionary
France and went to other European nations. Many helped the foreign
powers against France.
Declaration of Pillnitz- A 1792 agreement between Austria and Prussia pledging to work
together to crush the Revolution and to restore the old order in France.
Legislative Assembly- This was a new French parliament that replaced the National
Assembly in October 1791. It was dominated by younger bourgeoisie
who favored more radical reforms.
Jacobins- The most important political group to appear in the early Revolution.
The Jacobins were the most radical and violent faction in the National
Convention. They ran the nation during the Reign of Terror.
Girondin- The Girondins were a moderate faction of the Jacobins who supported
the Revolution but opposed extremism, such as the execution of the
King.
Mountain- The Mountain were the most radical faction of the Jacobins. The
dominated France during the Reign of Terror. They supported the
execution of the King and declared war on Austria and Prussia.
Reign of Terror- This was the most extreme and violent phase of the Revolution.
Thousands of people were arrested and executed on the guillotine as
enemies of the Revolution. The Terror ended with the execution of
Robespierre in July 1794.
National Convention- A new French parliament that was elected in the fall of 1792. The
Convention governed the nation during both the Terror and the
Directory.
Committee of Public Safety- A group of 12 delegates, selected by the National Convention, given
dictatorial power over France during the Reign of Terror. Robespierre
emerged as the leader of the Committee.
Thermidorean Reaction- A brief, violent period during the summer of 1794 when several
thousand leaders of the Terror were arrested and executed.
Robespierre’s execution in July 1794 began the reaction.
Directory- A new government formed after the end of the Terror. The Directory
was made up of 5 delegates selected by the Convention. It lasted from
1794 until Napoleon seized power in November 1799.
coup d’etat- A term for the overthrow of a legitimate government by military force.
archeology- The study of human history and prehistory through the excavation of
artifacts.
Rosetta Stone- An archeological wonder, this is a massive stone tablet from the
second century BCE, discovered by Napoleonic troops in Egypt in
1798. It contained the same message written in three different
languages (hieroglyphics, Demotic, and ancient Greek).
Consulate- The first government of Napoleon, it lasted from November 1799 until
he proclaimed the Empire in May 1804. Napoleon gradually emerged
as the single ruler of the nation.
Concordat with the Church- An 1801 agreement between Napoleon and the Pope that ended the
hostility between the Church and France. The Church recognized
Napoleon as the rightful ruler of France and Napoleon restored much
of the Church’s rights (bbut not lands).
irreligious- Indifferent or hostile to religion, or holding no religious beliefs at all.
Code Napoleon (aka Napoleonic Code)- Authorized by Napoleon, a panal of judges wrote a national legal code for France in 1804 that replaced old regional feudal codes. It created a
rational system of modern laws that was adopted by nations all over
the world.
plebiscite- A direct vote by the common people on a significant issue in which the
choice is between “yes” and “no.”
First (Grand) Empire- The Empire began when Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor in May
1804 and ended with his forced abdication in April 1814. The Empire
was briefly restored during the Hundred Days of 1815.
balance-of-power- The European diplomatic goal of preventing any single nation from
dominating the entire continent. Britain was especially dedicated to it.
puppet-state- A nation that is officially independent, but is in fact controlled by a
different nation.
Grand Duchy of Warsaw- A Napoleonic puppet-state that lasted from 1807 – 1814. It restored a
measure of Polish independence that Poland had lost after the
partitions of the 1790’s.
Confederation of the Rhine- A Napoleonic puppet-state that created the first unified German state
since the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. It lasted from 1806 – 1813.
Continental System- Term for Napoleon’s plan to ban all European trade with Britain in
hopes of bringing that nation to economic ruin. It banned the sale of
goods to Britain and the import of british goods to the continent.
economic warfare- The strategy of using economic tactics, such as tariffs and embargos
against rivals in hopes of causing financial collapse.
Peninsular War (1807 – 1814)- A brutal conflict that began when Napoleon’s forces occupied Spain.
The Spanish, with British support, began a long, guerilla war that
drained French strength during the conflict.
guerilla warfare- A defensive military tactic where an inferior force utilizes tactics the
defy the conventional rules of warfare such as the wearing of uniforms
and the taking of prisoners.
Invasion of Russia- The disastrous June 1812 military invasion of Russia by Napoleon’s
Grand Armee. The Russians retreated all summer, drawing the
French deep into Russia. When the winter began the French began an
epic retreat.
scorched earth- A military defensive tactic where a retreating army burns all resources
that an advancing enemy could possibly use, including structures,
towns, and fields of crops.
Congress of Vienna- One of the most important diplomatic events in European history, the
Congress went from November 1814 to June 1815. The goal of the
diplomats was to restore European order after the defeat of Napoleon.
Prince Metternich- he served as the Austrian Foreign Minister and later the Chancellor
(Prime Minister) during most of the first half of the 1800’s. His
conservative views dominated European international politics for
decades after the Congress of Vienna.
restoration- The act of returning a monarch to their throne, a government to power,
or the control of a previous regime.
legitimacy- Something that is legal, rightful, or appropriate.
Hundred Days- The period from March to July 1815 when Napoleon escaped from
Elba and attempted to restore his control over France. It ended with
his defeat at Waterloo and his capture and exile to St. Helena.
Battle of Waterloo- Decisive June 1815 battle, the last in Napoleon’s career. He was
defeated by Prussian and British forces led by the Duke of Wellington.
Napoleon was later taken prisoner and sent to his final exile.
astronomy- The branch of science that deals with the study of celestial objects, the
universe, the heavens.
astrology- A pseudoscience that attempts to predict events by the study of the
movement of stars and planets.
star charts- These are maps of the nighttime sky showing constellations and stars.
They have been used for many centuries by navigators.
Ptolemy- A 100’s CE Greek-Egyptian astronomer and cartographer who did
extensive work in astronomy and supported the geocentric theory of
how the universe operated. He also drew many of the most used
portolani (maps).
geocentric theory- An ancient scientific theory that the earth is at the center of the
universe and that all heavenly objects revolve around it.
heliocentric theory- A scientific theory that the sun, not the earth, is at the center of our
universe and that the earth revolves around the sun, not the other way
around.
elliptical- An enclosed circle that is oval in shape.
telescope- A scientific tool used to enhance one’s sight when observing objects in
the sky.
lunar- Of, or pertaining to the moon.
solar- Of, or pertaining to the sun.
Inquisition- Term for religious courts set up by Catholic authorities to root out
anyone suspected of holding views that contradicted Catholic
teachings. The courts could use torture and death to enforce their
power.
heresy- To hold positions that are contrary to the accepted teachings of a
religious community.
recant- To assert that one no longer accepts beliefs that one once supported;
to take back something once proclaimed.
alchemy- A forerunner of chemistry, it was focused on the transformation of
matter, especially base metals, such as lead, into gold.
Universal Laws- A belief in physics that there are scientific rules that are true
everywhere and for all time. Gravity is a prime example.
gravity- A natural phenomenon in which all objects with mass and energy are
drawn towards one another.
plagiarize- To take credit for the work of someone else and to pass it off as your
own; to copy.
mechanistic- Theories that explain phenomena in purely physical or deterministic
terms.
anatomy- The branch of science that deals with the study of the bodily structure
of humans and other animals.
Galen- A 100’s CE Greek physician whose ideas about anatomy and medicine
dominated medical theories for over 1,000 years.
bloodletting- The now discredited practice of withdrawing blood from a patient to
treat or prevent illness or disease.
folk remedies- The use of herbs, foods, and household items to treat illnesses and
disease by medical laymen. Some have shown effectiveness, others
none.
circulatory system- The complex system of veins and arteries that move blood through the
body.
entomology- the branch of zoology concerned with the study of insects.
metamorphosis- In insects or amphibians, the transformation from an immature form to
an adult form in two or more distinct stages.
Smallpox- A viral infection that caused high fever and an outbreak of painful
blisters all over the body. Over 90% of the infected died.
inoculation- A method of injecting immunities to a particular disease directly into the
body.
querelles de femmes- Term for the centuries long debate about the proper role for women in
European society.
midwife- Historically, a woman trained in the care of expecting mothers and in
the delivery of babies.
Index- First compiled at the Council of Trent, this was a list of books that
Catholics were prohibited to read. The Index was abolished in 1966.
Rationalism- The theory that opinions or actions should be based on reason and
knowledge rather than on religious beliefs or emotional responses.
cogito ergo sum- Famous Latin expression credited to Descartes; it translates as “I think,
therefore I am.”
Empiricism- The theory that all knowledge comes from experience and evidence
rather than from tradition.
Scientific Method- Radical new way of developing and confirming knowledge, developed
in the 1600’s and credited to Sir Francis Bacon. It involves a three-
step process of hypothesis, experimentation, new hypothesis.
Scientific Societies- National scientific organizations, such as the British Royal Society and
the French Academy, that bring together the leading scientists to share
and collaborate.
Enlightenment- An European intellectual movement of the 17 th and 18 th centuries in
which ideas of God, nature, reason, and humanity were challenged
and reassessed. It was predominantly associated with France.
philosophes- The French term for “philosopher,” it is used to describe the leading
intellects of the Enlightenment, such as Voltaire, Montesquieu, and
Rousseau.
relativism- The belief that knowledge, truth, and morality exist in relation to
culture, society, or historical context and are not absolute.
“noble savage”- An Enlightenment idea, associated with Rousseau, that believed that
early and primitive man was free from sin, materialistic desire, and was
more happy and free than the supposedly civilized Europeans.
censorship- The suppression of any part of a book, publication, film, or work of art
because of perceived offensive political, sexual, or religious content.
salon- Fashionable rooms in Parisian homes, run by elegant women, where
the ideas of the Enlightenment could be debated and discussed by
both genders.
separation of powers- The political concept, advocated by Montesquieu, where government’s
powers are divided into different branches, such as executive and
legislative.
Deism- A philosophical movement of the 18 th century that believed in a Creator
being (God) but rejected the Christian/Jewish/Muslim concept of a
redeemer God.
Enlightened Absolutism- Voltaire’s political idea that the ideal form of government was one
where the monarch possessed all power, but used it wisely for the
benefit of their subjects. Many monarchs considered themselves to be
examples of such a ruler.
anti-clerical- To be opposed to the power of religious authorities.
natural state- Rousseau argued that people who lived in a morally neutral, simple
state in harmony with the natural world around him was happier than
Europeans. He was inspired by the example of Native American and
South Pacific cultures.
general will- A political philosophy associated with Rousseau that argued that
people share a common goal for personal and communal happiness
and progress.
physiocrats- 17 th and 18 th century philosophers who dedicated their studies to
economics. Adam Smith was the best example of a physiocrat.
secular- Anything that is not religious in its character or purpose.
politiques- Term for those nobles and royal figures who supported religious
toleration as a means of restoring domestic peace and strengthening
the nation.
sovereignty- The power of a state to govern itself; supreme power or authority.
absolutism- A system of government where all power is in the hands of the ruler.
divine-right- A power or authority that is bestowed by God.
Bourbons- The family that held the throne of France from 1589 until the French
Revolution.
Edict of Nantes- 1598 royal decree issued by King Henry IV of France that granted
religious toleration and control of 200 walled fortified cities to that
nation’s Protestant minority.
reign- Period of time during which a monarch rules.
duel- Formal combat with weapons between two people in front of
witnesses.
Intendants- French royal governmental officials who took over roles once held by
the French nobility.
bureaucracy- Non-elected governmental officials who keep the machinery of the
state functioning.
Huguenots- French Protestants who followed the teachings of John Calvin.
Treaty of Westphalia- 1648 international agreement that ended the Thirty Years’ War. The
treaty marked a major defeat of the Habsburg dynasty and the rise of
the Bourbon dynasty. It destroyed the Holy Roman Empire.
standing army- A full-time, professional military force composed of career soldiers and
conscripts.
regency- A period of government when an appointed figure rules in the name of
the monarch due the monarch’s youth, illness, or incapacity.
Fronde- An uprising, led by French nobles, against the growth of absolutism in
that nation. It was crushed by the government of Louis XIV.
L’etat c’est moi- Famous declaration by Louis XIV that sums up the role of the absolute
monarch. It translates as “I am the state.”
levy- A tax (n) or the authority to collect a tax (v).
aristocratic- Of or pertaining to the nobility.
Edict of Fontainebleau- 1685 royal proclamation that ended religious freedoms for French
Huguenots and led to the emigration of over 200,000 Protestants.
mercantilism- The dominant economic policy of the 1500s – 1750s, it was based on
the formation of self-sufficient national economies. This was achieved
by limiting imports through high tariffs, the development of national
industries, and the acquisition of colonies. It emphasized the
amassing of bullion.
tariff- A tax placed on imported goods to keep out foreign competition.
League of Augsburg- An alliance of nations who feared the growing power of Louis XIV’s
France. It was principally led by William of Orange (Netherlands) who
went on to become William III (England).
legitimate- Something that is legally based; a child born to a married couple.
Treaty of Utrecht- 1713 agreement that ended the War of Spanish Succession. The
Bourbon King Phillip V was allowed to remain King of Spain but the
treaty was a major defeat for France and Spain.
Gibraltar- Strategic region attached to the bottom of the Iberian Peninsula; it
controls the passage between the Atlantic Ocean and the
Mediterranean Sea.
bullion- Precious metals (gold and silver) in bulk form, valued by weight.
Hohenzollern- The dynasty that ruled the German state of Prussia and later ruled the
German Empire.
militaristic- An aggressive posture that glorifies the military.
Kaiser- Title held by the ruling monarch of Prussia and later Germany.
General War Commissariat- The Prussian political organization created to direct the affairs of the nation and supervise the bureaucracy.
Junkers- Term that historically refers to the nobility of Prussia.
Sultan- Title held by the ruling monarch of the Ottoman Empire.
Battle of Lepanto- Epic 1571 naval battle between the Ottoman Empire and Christian
forces led by Spain that changed the balance of power in the
Mediterranean Sea and began the gradual decline of the Ottomans.
Janissaries- Elite Ottoman military force, at first composed of Christian-born
captives; it was the first standing army in the history of Europe.
“sick man of Europe”- Nickname of the Ottoman Empire in the 1800’s and early 1900’s as it
slowly declined as an European power.
Mongol Yoke- Term for the brutal 300 year period (1200’s – 1400’s) of Mongol feudal
rule over Russia. It left strong Asian influences on Russian culture.
Tsar- Title held by the ruling monarch of Russia.
autocracy- A state governed by a single absolute monarch who holds all power; it
is usually associated with Russia.
Boyar- Term that historically refers to the nobility of Russia.
serfs- One of the lower classes, they are rural, agricultural labor who are
bound to the land.
Romanov- The dynasty that ruled the state of Russia.
Kremlin- Massive fortress / palace complex in the heart of Moscow that is the
traditional center of the Russian government.
St. Petersburg- The city built in the early 1700’s on the Baltic coast by Peter the Great
as a new capital city of Russia. It was the capital until the Russian
Revolution.
Sejm- The historic parliament of Poland. In the medieval period the Sejm
held the veto power over actions of the government. It led to national
paralysis.
constitutional monarchy- AKA limited monarchy, A form of government in which the monarch’s powers are limited by law.
republic(an)- Any government that does not have a crowned monarch as head of
state.
stadholder- Title held by the ruling official of a Dutch province, similar to a
governor.
East Indies- Geographic region of Southeast Asia that includes Indonesia.
stock market- A business enterprise in which the stocks of different companies are
bought, sold, and traded.
merchant marine- A country’s shipping that is involved in trade, rather than military
activities.
finished goods- Products that have been produced from raw materials, thus increasing
their value.
commercial- A synonym for business.
joint-stock corporation- A business that sell shares to investors who then assume a
percentage of risk for a proportional share of any profits.
Magna Carta- Historic 1215 document signed by King John of England that placed
limits on the monarch’s powers. It is a foundation of English freedom.
balanced polity- Term that refers to the division of governmental powers between the
monarch and the Parliament.
Petition of Right (1628)- A document drafted by the Parliament that restricted the monarch’s
power in exchange for a payment of money. King Charles I signed the
Petition, accepted the money, and then refused to honor his word.
arbitrary- Something that is done without good reason, randomly.
quartering- In law, quartering is when a government forces people to houses
soldiers in their homes without any compensation.
martial law- This is a form of military control that is used to preserve order when a
government feels threatened.
renege- To go against a previous agreement, to break a promise.
tyranny- Oppressive, unjust, cruel government.
Eleven Years of Tyranny (1629 – 1640)- Term that refers to the period during which King Charles I ruled England without Parliament. It culminated in the English Civil War.
Long Parliament (1640 – 1660)- Nickname for the Parliament that was seated in 1640 at the end of the Eleven Years’ of Tyranny. The Long Parliament was hostile to King
Charles I and met off and on for the next 20 years.
House of Lords- The “upper” house of the English Parliament. Lords is meant to be the
voice of the nobility in the government.
House of Commons- The “lower” house of the English Parliament. The Commons is meant
to represent the common people in the government.
Cavaliers- Nickname for supporters of Charles I during the English Civil War.
charismatic- Possessing a compelling charm that inspires devotion in others.
gentry- An English social class made up of wealthy, land-owning people who
are lower than the nobility in status.
Roundheads- Nickname for opponents of King Charles I in the English Civil War.
New Model Army- A military force formed by opponents of the king during the English
Civil War. Oliver Cromwell became the commander. Many Puritans
served in the New Model Army.
regicide- Term for the killing of a ruling monarch.
English Commonwealth (1649 – 1660)- This is the only republic in English history. It was formed after theexecution of Charles I and lasted until the restoration of Charles II in
1660.
Lord Protector- The title held by Oliver Cromwell during his leadership of the
Commonwealth. He refused to take the title of king.
Levellers- A radical English political movement favored voting rights for all men
and even rights for women.
universal manhood suffrage- Political term that means that all adult men have the right to vote.
Rump Parliament- Following the decision to execute Charles I, many former supporters of
the fight against the king turned against Cromwell and withdrew from
the Parliament leaving only the most radical and Puritan elements.
This radical group were nicknamed the “Rump.”
Glorious Revolution (1688)- One of the most important political events in English history, the
monarch, King James II, was removed from the throne and replaced by
a new monarch chosen by the Parliament. It established the
superiority of the Parliament over the monarch in England.
abdicate- The action of a monarch in surrendering their claim to the throne.
Act of Settlement (1701)- A law passed by the English Parliament to ensure that no Catholic
could sit on the throne. It stated that if Queen Anne died with no
surviving children, the throne would go to the German Hannover
dynasty, Protestant cousins of the Stuarts. In 1714, George I was
crowned the first Hannover monarch of England.
figurehead- Someone is supposedly the leader of a nation or organization, but who
exercises no real authority.
Social Contract Theory- This is a political theory that government’s power is given bby the
people, not by God. There is an informal agreement between the
people and the government.
convents- Buildings where Catholic nuns live in common.
monasteries- Buildings where Catholic monks live in common.
Christian Humanism- Renaissance intellectual movement that focused on trying to return the
Church to earlier and more authentic practice of the faith.
advocate- To argue in support of something.
clergy- The formal leaders of any given religion. Examples of clergy would be
priests, bishops, ministers, rabbis, and imams.
layman- A member of a specific religion who is NOT a part of the clergy.
philology- The study of the historical development and origin of language.
Low Countries- Collective term to refer to Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.
patron- Someone who supports the arts or a specific artist.
simony- The act of buying or selling a religious office, such as the position of
bishop.
nepotism- The practice of people in a position of power or influence showing
undue favoritism to family or friends.
pluralism- The practice of certain Church leaders holding more than one religious
office at the same time.
veneration- The action of showing great respect to a created person, such as the
Virgin Mary or a saint.
relic- An ancient item that is associated with a holy figure, such as Christ or
a saint.
indulgences- Actions that a Catholic can undertake to earn forgiveness of sins; in
the 1400’s the Church had begun to sell indulgences angering many.
“Faith and Works”- Catholic teaching that one’s salvation is dependent on both faith and
good works.
“Faith alone, Grace alone, Scripture alone”- Luther’s argument that one’s salvation is dependent on faith only (not
good works), on God’s mercy, and on what is directly written in the
Bible.
excommunication- The action, taken by a religious group, that denies someone the right
to participate in the church community; to eject someone from a
religion.
Diet of Worms- 1521 heresy trial of Martin Luther. He was judged by HRE Charles V.
heresy- To hold positions that are contrary to the accepted teachings of a
religious community.
subject- A person who lives in a nation ruled by a crowned head of state (king,
queen, emperor, etc.).
recant- To assert that one no longer accepts beliefs that one once supported;
to take back something once proclaimed.
papal / papacy- Of, or pertaining to the office of the Pope of the Catholic Church.
celibacy- The act of abstaining from marriage and sexual relations.
vernacular- Any language spoken by the general population of a region, as
opposed to Latin, the language of the Church and education.
Scandinavia- The vast region of Northern Europe that includes the nations of
Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland.
Protestant- Any person who identifies as a Christian, but who is not a part of the
Catholic or Orthodox Christian faiths.
social uprising- A revolt by a specific segment of the population against the ruling
authorities.
status quo- The existing state of affairs, especially regarding religion and politics.
secular- Anything that is not religious in its character or purpose.
temporal- Relating to worldly as opposed to spiritual affairs; secular.
transubstantiation- Catholic teaching that during the mass (religious service) the
communion bread and wine are literally transformed into the actual
body and blood of Christ.
consubstantiation- Protestant teaching that during the communion bread and wine are
only symbolic representations of the actual body and blood of Christ.
predestination- The Calvinist teaching that God has already determined who is saved
and who is damned, even before we are born.
Elect- Calvin’s term for those who God had selected for salvation.
seminaries- Schools where clergy are educated in the beliefs of a specific religion.
Huguenots- French Protestants who followed the teachings of John Calvin.
Icon- Any representation or image of a sacred figure, such as Christ or a
saint.
theocracy- A government dominated by religious leaders.
iconoclastic- The action of attacking or destroying an icon.
Anabaptists- So called “radical” Protestants; the name derives from their practice of
only baptizing adults.
HRE- In context, it can mean either Holy Roman Empire or Holy Roman
Emperor.
Peace of Augsburg- 1555 internal agreement in the Holy Roman Empire that allowed the
ruler of each state in the Empire to select the religion for the people
who live in their state. It briefly ended warfare between Catholics and
Protestants in the Empire.
abdicate- The action of a monarch in surrendering their claim to the throne.
Bourbons- The family that held the throne of France from 1589 until the French
Revolution.
politiques- Term for those nobles and royal figures who supported religious
toleration as a means of restoring domestic peace and strengthening
the nation.
Edict of Nantes- 1598 royal decree issued by King Henry IV of France that granted
religious toleration and control of 200 walled fortified cities to that
nation’s Protestant minority.
Inquisition- Term for religious courts set up by Catholic authorities in Spain to root
out anyone suspected of practicing the Jewish or Muslim religions.
The courts could use torture and death to enforce their power.
annulment- A legal procedure that cancels a marriage as if it had never taken
place.
sacked- A military action in which a victorious army is permitted to rape,
murder, and destroy a conquered city.
illegitimate- Term formerly used to identify a child born to parents who were not
married.
Act of Supremacy- 1534 law passed by the English Parliament naming the king (Henry
VIII) the head of the Church of England. The Act also made it
treasonous for anyone to refuse to accept the new law.
regent- Title for a person selected to hold power when a monarch is either too
young or too ill to rule on their own.
Anglican Church- A synonym for the Church of England, the Protestant faith first
established in the reign of King Henry VIII.
Act of Religious Settlement- 1559 law passed by the English Parliament that made the Anglican
Church the official state church of England and recognized that there
were other faiths in the nation.
Spanish Armada- A massive fleet of over 130 Spanish warships that was sent against
England in 1588. The fleet suffered heavy losses and was a major
disaster for Spain.
Council of Trent- A landmark meeting of Catholic Church leaders, held between 1546 –
1563 for the purpose of developing a response to the Protestant
Reformation.
standardize- To make something uniform, the same.
dogma- The official teachings, beliefs, and practices of a religion.
Index- First compiled at the Council of Trent, this was a list of books that
Catholics were prohibited to read. The Index was abolished in 1966.
Jesuits- A synonym for the Society a Jesus, an order of well-educated Catholic
priests founded by a Spanish priest, Ignatius of Loyola, in 1546.
Baroque- A style of European art, architecture, and music of the 17 th and 18 th
centuries characterized by ornate details and emotional subjects.
Mannerism- A European art movement associated with the late-Renaissance
period of the 16 th century and noted for its sophistication and artificial
style.
Defenestration of Prague- 1618 event that triggered the destructive Thirty Years’ War. Two
representatives of the Holy Roman Emperor were tossed from a high
window by Bohemian Calvinist officials.
evangelized- The act of preaching a religious belief in hopes of winning converts.
lucrative- Something that is profitable or valuable.
New Monarchs- Historical term for those rulers who came to power in the 1500’s and
were able to establish stronger control over their nation’s than
medieval kings ever could.
caravel- Revolutionary Portuguese designed sailing ship capable of handling
the dangers of ocean voyages. The vessels utilized three triangular
sails, a rudder, and a rounded hull.
backstaff / astrolabe / sextant- Each are tools used by navigators to track speed and location using the sun, moon, stars, and the horizon.
portolani- Term for ancient, medieval maps used by early explorers in the 1300’s
and 1400’s. They were highly inaccurate.
Cape of Good Hope- The strategic passage of water at the bottom of the African continent,
marked by stormy seas caused by the meeting of the Atlantic and
Indian oceans.
Malacca- An old name for the islands of Indonesia coveted for their spices and
strategic location.
Treaty of Tordesillas- 1494 agreement negotiated by Pope Alexander VI that split the
unknown world between Spain and Portugal.
circumnavigate- The act of sailing around the world.
conquistadors- Spanish term for the soldiers who brutally conquered the New World
native population in the 1500’s.
Smallpox- A viral infection that caused high fever and an outbreak of painful
blisters all over the body. Over 90% of the infected died.
encomienda- These were large land grants from the Spanish king to Spanish
soldiers serving in the New World. They were given the right to
demand labor from Native Americans living there.
Middle Passage- Term for the horrific journey of the captive African slaves across the
Atlantic to the slave markets of the New World. Millions did not survive
the voyages.
Mestizos- A mixed race people of European and Native American blood.
Mulattos- A mixed race people of European and African blood.
rationalize- To attempt to explain or justify an action or belief that other might find
offensive.
relativism- The belief that knowledge, truth, and morality exist in relation to
culture, society, or historical context and are not absolute.
demographic- The study of people and population.
Columbian Exchange- Term for the back-and-forth, give-and-take relationship between
Europe and the New World. It was marked by the movement of
people, crops, and goods between both hemispheres.
bullion- Precious metals (gold and silver) in bulk form, valued by weight.
inflation- A general increase in prices and a decline in the purchasing power of
the money.
Price Revolution- Term for an economic upheaval that struck Spain and then all of
Europe in the 1500’s and 1600’s. It was marked by inflation that drove
up prices.
barter- The economic system where goods are traded for other goods without
the use of currency.
Global Economy- Term for the beginnings of an intertwined worldwide economy that
linked the four corners of the world through the exchange of goods.
Triangle Trade- Term for the economic relationship between Europe, Africa, and the
New World.
coffee houses- Businesses that emerged in European cities selling coffee, sugar, and
tobacco products imported from the New World. They are good
examples of the global economy.
commercial- A synonym for business.
commercial capitalism- An early form of trade that focused on the movement of goods from a
place where had low value to a place where these same goods could
be sold for more. It is a forerunner of free-trade.
joint-stock corporations- A business model that was based on shared risk and shared reward.
Shares (a portion of ownership) were sold to investors who owned a
share in the entire business.
British East Indies Company- First chartered by Queen Elizabeth I in 1600, the company came to dominate trade in South Asia (India, Sri Lanka, and Singapore) and
Qing China. At its peak, it accounted for 50% of all world trade.
Dutch East Indies Company- First chartered in 1602, this company is considered the world’s first multi-national conglomerate. It built ships, and transported goods such
as Java coffee, Taiwanese sugar, Indian tea and cotton, and South
African wines.
Fuggers- A powerful and wealthy family that dominated the banking industry in
Northern Europe, especially Germany.
bourgeoisie- Term referring to the urban, educated middle and upper classes.
mercantilism- The dominant economic policy of the 1500s – 1750s, it was based on
the formation of self-sufficient national economies. This was achieved
by limiting imports through high tariffs, the development of national
industries, and the acquisition of colonies. It emphasized the
amassing of bullion.
import- A good that is brought into a country from a foreign source.
tariff- A tax placed on imported goods to keep out foreign competition.
domestic- Of, or pertaining to one’s own country.
free-trade- A system of economics that rejected the theory of mercantilism. The
idea is to put as few barriers to trade as possible. The system rejects
all tariffs.
Hanseatic League- German merchant guild that formed during the middle ages
to protect their mutual trading interests
disce aut discede- Latin term that means “learn or leave.”
Black Death- A bacterial disease that devastated many areas of the world. It’s
arrival in Europe in 1348 led to the deaths of millions and a profound
change in society.
Bubonic Plague- A synonym for the Black Death
Constantinople- A city first established by the Roman Emperor Constantine in the 300’s
CE. It was the capital of the Byzantine Empire and later the Ottoman
Empire.
urban- Of, or pertaining to cities.
rural- Of, or pertaining to the countryside.
flagellants- An extremist Catholic religious movement that believed that physical
punishment of the flesh (whipping) could atone for the sins of man.
They believed the plague was a punishment from God.
ghetto- Originally it referred to a specific section of a European city where
Jews were allowed to reside. It was often walled off from Christian
areas.
pogrom- Term for periodic violent attacks on the Jewish population. They were
especially prominent in Eastern Europe (Russia).
anti-Semitism- The hatred of the Jewish population.
first-hand- Something directly witnessed or experienced by the person relating it.
second-hand- Something explained by someone who did not directly witness or
experience it.
Florentine- Of, or pertaining to the Italian city of Florence.
vernacular- Any language spoken by the general population of a region, as
opposed to Latin, the language of the Church and education.
siege- A military tactic where an enemy is completely surrounded and starved
into submission.
Balkan Peninsula- The vast region of southeastern Europe that includes nations such as
Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, and Serbia.
antiquity- Of, or pertaining to anything ancient, or to a period of ancient history.
Middle Ages- The European historical era following the fall of the Roman Empire in
476 CE and the beginning of the Renaissance (1400’s).
medieval- A synonym for the Middle Ages.
transcribe- The action of copying by hand something written.
literate- The ability to read.
illiterate- Lacking the ability to read.
secular- Anything that is not religious in its character or purpose.
classical- Of, or pertaining to ancient Greece and/or ancient Rome.
Italian Renaissance- A distinct period in the 1400’s and 1500’s in which there was a
renewed interest in culture, art, and learning.
papal / papacy- Of, or pertaining to the office of the Pope of the Catholic Church.
lion’s share- An expression that means the biggest and best portion of something.
Doge- The title held by the man elected as ruling prince of the city of Venice.
textile- Of, or pertaining to cloth or to the production of cloth.
Medici- A powerful, wealthy family that dominated the politics of the city of
Florence for much of the Renaissance.
humanism- A Renaissance intellectual movement that rejected medieval focus on
religious causes for all events and looked to Greek and Roman values
for inspiration. Humanists emphasized the potential and goodness of
man and sought rational ways to solve human problems.
oligarchy- Any government dominated by a few wealthy people.
S’forza- A powerful, wealthy family that dominated the politics of the city of
Milan.
mercenary- A soldier who fights for anyone who pays for their services.
patron- Someone who supports the arts or a specific artist.
liberal arts- Courses of study that focus on man and his accomplishments.
skepticism- The philosophical belief that certain knowledge is impossible, to doubt.
theology- The study of religion.
ethics- The study of moral principles and behavior.
Dark Ages- A synonym for the Middle Ages.
philology- The study of the historical development and origin of language.
Vatican- An independent state in the heart of the city of Rome that is ruled by
the Pope. It is the center of the Catholic Church’s governing authority.
Donation of Constantine- A medieval document that was falsely claimed to be a Roman deed
that gave the Catholic Church control over much of Western Europe.
universal truths- Values that are common to all humanity, such as honesty and
kindness.
“Renaissance Man”- Term coined by Castiglione to refer to the ideal man who can do
everything and do it all well.
Civic Humanism- Renaissance intellectual movement that sought to design a more ideal
form of government, inspired by classical Greek and Roman models.
political science- The study of different forms of government.
Christian Humanism- Renaissance intellectual movement that focused on trying to return the
Church to earlier and more authentic practice of the faith.
Flanders- An ancient name for a major region of modern Belgium.
Vulgate Bible- The ancient Latin translation of the Bible used by the medieval Catholic
Church.
Northern Renaissance- Term for the spread of the Renaissance into Northern and Western
Europe, especially Germany and the Netherlands. It was more
focused on religious issues than was the Italian Renaissance.
Low Countries- Collective term to refer to Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.
hierarchical- A societal structure that divides people into different ranks from highest
to lowest.
clergy- The formal leaders of any given religion. Examples of clergy would be
priests, bishops, ministers, rabbis, and imams.
laymember-someone who is a part of a faith but does not have a job within the
religion.
peasants- One of the lower classes, they are rural, agricultural free laborers.
serfs- One of the lower classes, they are rural, agricultural labor who are
bound to the land.
artisans- A type of skilled worker who produces items by hand, such as a tailor,
a shoemaker, or a potter.
guild- A medieval trade organization made up of workers from a common
industry. The guild controlled the training of new members, the quality
of goods produced, and pricing.
rationalize- To attempt to explain or justify an action or belief that other might find
offensive.
primogeniture- The ancient law that the first born male in a family inherited all property
and titles.
feminist- The movement that seeks to elevate the status and opportunities for
females.
querelles de femmes- Term for the centuries long debate about the proper role for women in
European society.
perspective- The artistic technique of creating three-dimensional depth on a flat
surface.
contrapposto- Artistic technique of showing a human figure with the weight on a
single limb.
Gothic- Architectural style associated with the late-Middle Ages and often
characterized with pointed arches, flying buttresses, and the use of
stained glass windows.
New Monarchs- Historical term for those rulers who came to power in the 1500’s and
were able to establish stronger control over their nation’s than
medieval kings ever could.
War of the Roses- A civil war in England from 1455 – 1485 fought for control of the
throne.
Tudor- The family that controlled the English throne from 1485 – 1603.
regicide- The act of killing a ruling monarch.
usurper- Term refers to someone who seizes power that does not rightfully
belong to them.
dynasty- A succession of members of a single family who control or rule a
nation.
Moors- A Muslim people of North African origin who conquered the Iberian
Peninsula in the Middle Ages and ruled much of the region for
centuries.
Iberian Peninsula- Term for the geographic region of southwestern Europe that includes
the nations of Portugal and Spain.
Inquisition- Term for religious courts set up by Catholic authorities in Spain to root
out anyone suspected of practicing the Jewish or Muslim religions.
The courts could use torture and death to enforce their power.
centralized- The concentration of authority and control in a single person or place.
Habsburg- The family that ruled over the Holy Roman Empire, Austria, and Spain
for many centuries.