AP Euro Flashcards

popular sovereignty- The political idea that power comes from the people, not God, and that

it remains with the people.

separation of powers- The political concept, advocated by Montesquieu, where government’s

powers are divided into different branches, such as executive and

legislative.

American Revolution (1775 – 1783)- The first successful revolt by a colony against rule by a European mother country. The 13 British colonies revolted against foreign rule.

It ended in an American victory and the establishment of the first

federal republic in history.

French and Indian War (1754 – 1763)- This was the North American theater (region) of the European conflict called the Seven Years’ War. It was fought between Britain and its

American colonies against France and its French colonies in North

America. Most Native Americans fought for the French side in the

conflict. It ended in a major british victory.

Declaration of Independence- One of the most important political documents ever written, it was inspired by the social contract theory of Locke and was written by

Thomas Jefferson. It lays out the reasons for the American rejection of

British rule.

First Estate- Pre-Revolutionary term for the Catholic clergy of France.

Second Estate- Pre-Revolutionary term for the nobility of France.

Third Estate- Pre-Revolutionary term for the masses of French society prior to the

Revolution. It included peasants, bourgeoisie, and the urban poor.

peasants- One of the lower classes, they are rural, agricultural free laborers.

sans-culottes- This was a slang term that referred to the urban working poor.

bourgeoisie- Term referring to the urban, educated middle and upper classes.

taille- A hated tax paid only by the common people of France, not by the

clergy or the nobility.

Estates-General- The historic parliament of France, it was a body that the French king

could consult at will. It lacked the same type of powers that the British

Parliament possessed.

cahiers de doleances- These were lists of grievances drawn up by each of the three estates;

they were reform suggestions and included demands such as fair

taxation and equal voting rights.

National Assembly- The delegates of the Third Estate declared the end of the Estates-

General and the formation of the National Assembly as the new

parliament of France. It was dominated by the bourgeoisie.

Tennis Court Oath- On June 20, 1789 the King ordered that the National Assembly be

locked out of their meeting room. The delegates regrouped on a tennis

court at Versailles and swore not to disband until they had written a

constitution for France.

militias- A military force that is made up of civilians rather than soldiers, usually

put together in times of emergency.

Bastille- A large fortress in the heart of Paris that served as a hated prison. On

July 14, 1789 a Paris mob stormed the Bastille in search of weapons.

The mob killed several soldiers. This is a major event of the

Revolution.

Great Fear- In the summer of 1789 a panic swept across France that the nobility

was going to crush the new Revolution. Angry peasant mobs attacked

the estates of the nobles and burned many to the ground.

manorial obligations- These were ancient requirements that peasants needed to work

several days each month on the lands of the nobility.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen- Written by delegates of the National Assembly during the summer of 1789, this is the first constitution of France. It promised equal rights for

all French men.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy- This is considered to be one of the first mistakes of the Revolution.This law required all French Catholic clergy to swear an oath of loyalty

to the nation over the Church. It turned the Church into an enemy of

the Revolution.

metric system- The most common system of measurement used in the world. It uses

the meter, liter, and gram as units of measure. It was first adopted by

France during the Revolution.

“Liberty, Equality, Fraternity”- This became the famous three-word motto of the Revolution; it sums up the ideals of the Revolution.

Women’s March- On October 5, 1789 thousands of Parisian poor women marched to

Versailles to demand that King Louis XVI do something to lower the

price of bread. It grew violent. The women forced the King and his

family to leave Versailles and return to Paris.

Haitian Revolution- This was the first successful slave revolt against European rule to

occur. It began in 1791 when Black slaves overwhelmed the French

planters in the Caribbean colony of Saint-Domingue. The slave rebels

established the first Black ruled republic in world history and

successfully defended their independence against Napoleon’s attempt

to reestablish French control.

inflation- A general increase in prices and a decline in the purchasing power of

the money.

emigres- French term for those French nobles who fled from revolutionary

France and went to other European nations. Many helped the foreign

powers against France.

Declaration of Pillnitz- A 1792 agreement between Austria and Prussia pledging to work

together to crush the Revolution and to restore the old order in France.

Legislative Assembly- This was a new French parliament that replaced the National

Assembly in October 1791. It was dominated by younger bourgeoisie

who favored more radical reforms.

Jacobins- The most important political group to appear in the early Revolution.

The Jacobins were the most radical and violent faction in the National

Convention. They ran the nation during the Reign of Terror.

Girondin- The Girondins were a moderate faction of the Jacobins who supported

the Revolution but opposed extremism, such as the execution of the

King.

Mountain- The Mountain were the most radical faction of the Jacobins. The

dominated France during the Reign of Terror. They supported the

execution of the King and declared war on Austria and Prussia.

Reign of Terror- This was the most extreme and violent phase of the Revolution.

Thousands of people were arrested and executed on the guillotine as

enemies of the Revolution. The Terror ended with the execution of

Robespierre in July 1794.

National Convention- A new French parliament that was elected in the fall of 1792. The

Convention governed the nation during both the Terror and the

Directory.

Committee of Public Safety- A group of 12 delegates, selected by the National Convention, given

dictatorial power over France during the Reign of Terror. Robespierre

emerged as the leader of the Committee.

Thermidorean Reaction- A brief, violent period during the summer of 1794 when several

thousand leaders of the Terror were arrested and executed.

Robespierre’s execution in July 1794 began the reaction.

Directory- A new government formed after the end of the Terror. The Directory

was made up of 5 delegates selected by the Convention. It lasted from

1794 until Napoleon seized power in November 1799.

coup d’etat- A term for the overthrow of a legitimate government by military force.

archeology- The study of human history and prehistory through the excavation of

artifacts.

Rosetta Stone- An archeological wonder, this is a massive stone tablet from the

second century BCE, discovered by Napoleonic troops in Egypt in

1798. It contained the same message written in three different

languages (hieroglyphics, Demotic, and ancient Greek).

Consulate- The first government of Napoleon, it lasted from November 1799 until

he proclaimed the Empire in May 1804. Napoleon gradually emerged

as the single ruler of the nation.

Concordat with the Church- An 1801 agreement between Napoleon and the Pope that ended the

hostility between the Church and France. The Church recognized

Napoleon as the rightful ruler of France and Napoleon restored much

of the Church’s rights (bbut not lands).

irreligious- Indifferent or hostile to religion, or holding no religious beliefs at all.

Code Napoleon (aka Napoleonic Code)- Authorized by Napoleon, a panal of judges wrote a national legal code for France in 1804 that replaced old regional feudal codes. It created a

rational system of modern laws that was adopted by nations all over

the world.

plebiscite- A direct vote by the common people on a significant issue in which the

choice is between “yes” and “no.”

First (Grand) Empire- The Empire began when Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor in May

1804 and ended with his forced abdication in April 1814. The Empire

was briefly restored during the Hundred Days of 1815.

balance-of-power- The European diplomatic goal of preventing any single nation from

dominating the entire continent. Britain was especially dedicated to it.

puppet-state- A nation that is officially independent, but is in fact controlled by a

different nation.

Grand Duchy of Warsaw- A Napoleonic puppet-state that lasted from 1807 – 1814. It restored a

measure of Polish independence that Poland had lost after the

partitions of the 1790’s.

Confederation of the Rhine- A Napoleonic puppet-state that created the first unified German state

since the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. It lasted from 1806 – 1813.

Continental System- Term for Napoleon’s plan to ban all European trade with Britain in

hopes of bringing that nation to economic ruin. It banned the sale of

goods to Britain and the import of british goods to the continent.

economic warfare- The strategy of using economic tactics, such as tariffs and embargos

against rivals in hopes of causing financial collapse.

Peninsular War (1807 – 1814)- A brutal conflict that began when Napoleon’s forces occupied Spain.

The Spanish, with British support, began a long, guerilla war that

drained French strength during the conflict.

guerilla warfare- A defensive military tactic where an inferior force utilizes tactics the

defy the conventional rules of warfare such as the wearing of uniforms

and the taking of prisoners.

Invasion of Russia- The disastrous June 1812 military invasion of Russia by Napoleon’s

Grand Armee. The Russians retreated all summer, drawing the

French deep into Russia. When the winter began the French began an

epic retreat.

scorched earth- A military defensive tactic where a retreating army burns all resources

that an advancing enemy could possibly use, including structures,

towns, and fields of crops.

Congress of Vienna- One of the most important diplomatic events in European history, the

Congress went from November 1814 to June 1815. The goal of the

diplomats was to restore European order after the defeat of Napoleon.

Prince Metternich- he served as the Austrian Foreign Minister and later the Chancellor

(Prime Minister) during most of the first half of the 1800’s. His

conservative views dominated European international politics for

decades after the Congress of Vienna.

restoration- The act of returning a monarch to their throne, a government to power,

or the control of a previous regime.

legitimacy- Something that is legal, rightful, or appropriate.

Hundred Days- The period from March to July 1815 when Napoleon escaped from

Elba and attempted to restore his control over France. It ended with

his defeat at Waterloo and his capture and exile to St. Helena.

Battle of Waterloo- Decisive June 1815 battle, the last in Napoleon’s career. He was

defeated by Prussian and British forces led by the Duke of Wellington.

Napoleon was later taken prisoner and sent to his final exile.

astronomy- The branch of science that deals with the study of celestial objects, the

universe, the heavens.

astrology- A pseudoscience that attempts to predict events by the study of the

movement of stars and planets.

star charts- These are maps of the nighttime sky showing constellations and stars.

They have been used for many centuries by navigators.

Ptolemy- A 100’s CE Greek-Egyptian astronomer and cartographer who did

extensive work in astronomy and supported the geocentric theory of

how the universe operated. He also drew many of the most used

portolani (maps).

geocentric theory- An ancient scientific theory that the earth is at the center of the

universe and that all heavenly objects revolve around it.

heliocentric theory- A scientific theory that the sun, not the earth, is at the center of our

universe and that the earth revolves around the sun, not the other way

around.

elliptical- An enclosed circle that is oval in shape.

telescope- A scientific tool used to enhance one’s sight when observing objects in

the sky.

lunar- Of, or pertaining to the moon.

solar- Of, or pertaining to the sun.

Inquisition- Term for religious courts set up by Catholic authorities to root out

anyone suspected of holding views that contradicted Catholic

teachings. The courts could use torture and death to enforce their

power.

heresy- To hold positions that are contrary to the accepted teachings of a

religious community.

recant- To assert that one no longer accepts beliefs that one once supported;

to take back something once proclaimed.

alchemy- A forerunner of chemistry, it was focused on the transformation of

matter, especially base metals, such as lead, into gold.

Universal Laws- A belief in physics that there are scientific rules that are true

everywhere and for all time. Gravity is a prime example.

gravity- A natural phenomenon in which all objects with mass and energy are

drawn towards one another.

plagiarize- To take credit for the work of someone else and to pass it off as your

own; to copy.

mechanistic- Theories that explain phenomena in purely physical or deterministic

terms.

anatomy- The branch of science that deals with the study of the bodily structure

of humans and other animals.

Galen- A 100’s CE Greek physician whose ideas about anatomy and medicine

dominated medical theories for over 1,000 years.

bloodletting- The now discredited practice of withdrawing blood from a patient to

treat or prevent illness or disease.

folk remedies- The use of herbs, foods, and household items to treat illnesses and

disease by medical laymen. Some have shown effectiveness, others

none.

circulatory system- The complex system of veins and arteries that move blood through the

body.

entomology- the branch of zoology concerned with the study of insects.

metamorphosis- In insects or amphibians, the transformation from an immature form to

an adult form in two or more distinct stages.

Smallpox- A viral infection that caused high fever and an outbreak of painful

blisters all over the body. Over 90% of the infected died.

inoculation- A method of injecting immunities to a particular disease directly into the

body.

querelles de femmes- Term for the centuries long debate about the proper role for women in

European society.

midwife- Historically, a woman trained in the care of expecting mothers and in

the delivery of babies.

Index- First compiled at the Council of Trent, this was a list of books that

Catholics were prohibited to read. The Index was abolished in 1966.

Rationalism- The theory that opinions or actions should be based on reason and

knowledge rather than on religious beliefs or emotional responses.

cogito ergo sum- Famous Latin expression credited to Descartes; it translates as “I think,

therefore I am.”

Empiricism- The theory that all knowledge comes from experience and evidence

rather than from tradition.

Scientific Method- Radical new way of developing and confirming knowledge, developed

in the 1600’s and credited to Sir Francis Bacon. It involves a three-

step process of hypothesis, experimentation, new hypothesis.

Scientific Societies- National scientific organizations, such as the British Royal Society and

the French Academy, that bring together the leading scientists to share

and collaborate.

Enlightenment- An European intellectual movement of the 17 th and 18 th centuries in

which ideas of God, nature, reason, and humanity were challenged

and reassessed. It was predominantly associated with France.

philosophes- The French term for “philosopher,” it is used to describe the leading

intellects of the Enlightenment, such as Voltaire, Montesquieu, and

Rousseau.

relativism- The belief that knowledge, truth, and morality exist in relation to

culture, society, or historical context and are not absolute.

“noble savage”- An Enlightenment idea, associated with Rousseau, that believed that

early and primitive man was free from sin, materialistic desire, and was

more happy and free than the supposedly civilized Europeans.

censorship- The suppression of any part of a book, publication, film, or work of art

because of perceived offensive political, sexual, or religious content.

salon- Fashionable rooms in Parisian homes, run by elegant women, where

the ideas of the Enlightenment could be debated and discussed by

both genders.

separation of powers- The political concept, advocated by Montesquieu, where government’s

powers are divided into different branches, such as executive and

legislative.

Deism- A philosophical movement of the 18 th century that believed in a Creator

being (God) but rejected the Christian/Jewish/Muslim concept of a

redeemer God.

Enlightened Absolutism- Voltaire’s political idea that the ideal form of government was one

where the monarch possessed all power, but used it wisely for the

benefit of their subjects. Many monarchs considered themselves to be

examples of such a ruler.

anti-clerical- To be opposed to the power of religious authorities.

natural state- Rousseau argued that people who lived in a morally neutral, simple

state in harmony with the natural world around him was happier than

Europeans. He was inspired by the example of Native American and

South Pacific cultures.

general will- A political philosophy associated with Rousseau that argued that

people share a common goal for personal and communal happiness

and progress.

physiocrats- 17 th and 18 th century philosophers who dedicated their studies to

economics. Adam Smith was the best example of a physiocrat.

secular- Anything that is not religious in its character or purpose.

politiques- Term for those nobles and royal figures who supported religious

toleration as a means of restoring domestic peace and strengthening

the nation.

sovereignty- The power of a state to govern itself; supreme power or authority.

absolutism- A system of government where all power is in the hands of the ruler.

divine-right- A power or authority that is bestowed by God.

Bourbons- The family that held the throne of France from 1589 until the French

Revolution.

Edict of Nantes- 1598 royal decree issued by King Henry IV of France that granted

religious toleration and control of 200 walled fortified cities to that

nation’s Protestant minority.

reign- Period of time during which a monarch rules.

duel- Formal combat with weapons between two people in front of

witnesses.

Intendants- French royal governmental officials who took over roles once held by

the French nobility.

bureaucracy- Non-elected governmental officials who keep the machinery of the

state functioning.

Huguenots- French Protestants who followed the teachings of John Calvin.

Treaty of Westphalia- 1648 international agreement that ended the Thirty Years’ War. The

treaty marked a major defeat of the Habsburg dynasty and the rise of

the Bourbon dynasty. It destroyed the Holy Roman Empire.

standing army- A full-time, professional military force composed of career soldiers and

conscripts.

regency- A period of government when an appointed figure rules in the name of

the monarch due the monarch’s youth, illness, or incapacity.

Fronde- An uprising, led by French nobles, against the growth of absolutism in

that nation. It was crushed by the government of Louis XIV.

L’etat c’est moi- Famous declaration by Louis XIV that sums up the role of the absolute

monarch. It translates as “I am the state.”

levy- A tax (n) or the authority to collect a tax (v).

aristocratic- Of or pertaining to the nobility.

Edict of Fontainebleau- 1685 royal proclamation that ended religious freedoms for French

Huguenots and led to the emigration of over 200,000 Protestants.

mercantilism- The dominant economic policy of the 1500s – 1750s, it was based on

the formation of self-sufficient national economies. This was achieved

by limiting imports through high tariffs, the development of national

industries, and the acquisition of colonies. It emphasized the

amassing of bullion.

tariff- A tax placed on imported goods to keep out foreign competition.

League of Augsburg- An alliance of nations who feared the growing power of Louis XIV’s

France. It was principally led by William of Orange (Netherlands) who

went on to become William III (England).

legitimate- Something that is legally based; a child born to a married couple.

Treaty of Utrecht- 1713 agreement that ended the War of Spanish Succession. The

Bourbon King Phillip V was allowed to remain King of Spain but the

treaty was a major defeat for France and Spain.

Gibraltar- Strategic region attached to the bottom of the Iberian Peninsula; it

controls the passage between the Atlantic Ocean and the

Mediterranean Sea.

bullion- Precious metals (gold and silver) in bulk form, valued by weight.

Hohenzollern- The dynasty that ruled the German state of Prussia and later ruled the

German Empire.

militaristic- An aggressive posture that glorifies the military.

Kaiser- Title held by the ruling monarch of Prussia and later Germany.

General War Commissariat- The Prussian political organization created to direct the affairs of the nation and supervise the bureaucracy.

Junkers- Term that historically refers to the nobility of Prussia.

Sultan- Title held by the ruling monarch of the Ottoman Empire.

Battle of Lepanto- Epic 1571 naval battle between the Ottoman Empire and Christian

forces led by Spain that changed the balance of power in the

Mediterranean Sea and began the gradual decline of the Ottomans.

Janissaries- Elite Ottoman military force, at first composed of Christian-born

captives; it was the first standing army in the history of Europe.

“sick man of Europe”- Nickname of the Ottoman Empire in the 1800’s and early 1900’s as it

slowly declined as an European power.

Mongol Yoke- Term for the brutal 300 year period (1200’s – 1400’s) of Mongol feudal

rule over Russia. It left strong Asian influences on Russian culture.

Tsar- Title held by the ruling monarch of Russia.

autocracy- A state governed by a single absolute monarch who holds all power; it

is usually associated with Russia.

Boyar- Term that historically refers to the nobility of Russia.

serfs- One of the lower classes, they are rural, agricultural labor who are

bound to the land.

Romanov- The dynasty that ruled the state of Russia.

Kremlin- Massive fortress / palace complex in the heart of Moscow that is the

traditional center of the Russian government.

St. Petersburg- The city built in the early 1700’s on the Baltic coast by Peter the Great

as a new capital city of Russia. It was the capital until the Russian

Revolution.

Sejm- The historic parliament of Poland. In the medieval period the Sejm

held the veto power over actions of the government. It led to national

paralysis.

constitutional monarchy- AKA limited monarchy, A form of government in which the monarch’s powers are limited by law.

republic(an)- Any government that does not have a crowned monarch as head of

state.

stadholder- Title held by the ruling official of a Dutch province, similar to a

governor.

East Indies- Geographic region of Southeast Asia that includes Indonesia.

stock market- A business enterprise in which the stocks of different companies are

bought, sold, and traded.

merchant marine- A country’s shipping that is involved in trade, rather than military

activities.

finished goods- Products that have been produced from raw materials, thus increasing

their value.

commercial- A synonym for business.

joint-stock corporation- A business that sell shares to investors who then assume a

percentage of risk for a proportional share of any profits.

Magna Carta- Historic 1215 document signed by King John of England that placed

limits on the monarch’s powers. It is a foundation of English freedom.

balanced polity- Term that refers to the division of governmental powers between the

monarch and the Parliament.

Petition of Right (1628)- A document drafted by the Parliament that restricted the monarch’s

power in exchange for a payment of money. King Charles I signed the

Petition, accepted the money, and then refused to honor his word.

arbitrary- Something that is done without good reason, randomly.

quartering- In law, quartering is when a government forces people to houses

soldiers in their homes without any compensation.

martial law- This is a form of military control that is used to preserve order when a

government feels threatened.

renege- To go against a previous agreement, to break a promise.

tyranny- Oppressive, unjust, cruel government.

Eleven Years of Tyranny (1629 – 1640)- Term that refers to the period during which King Charles I ruled England without Parliament. It culminated in the English Civil War.

Long Parliament (1640 – 1660)- Nickname for the Parliament that was seated in 1640 at the end of the Eleven Years’ of Tyranny. The Long Parliament was hostile to King

Charles I and met off and on for the next 20 years.

House of Lords- The “upper” house of the English Parliament. Lords is meant to be the

voice of the nobility in the government.

House of Commons- The “lower” house of the English Parliament. The Commons is meant

to represent the common people in the government.

Cavaliers- Nickname for supporters of Charles I during the English Civil War.

charismatic- Possessing a compelling charm that inspires devotion in others.

gentry- An English social class made up of wealthy, land-owning people who

are lower than the nobility in status.

Roundheads- Nickname for opponents of King Charles I in the English Civil War.

New Model Army- A military force formed by opponents of the king during the English

Civil War. Oliver Cromwell became the commander. Many Puritans

served in the New Model Army.

regicide- Term for the killing of a ruling monarch.

English Commonwealth (1649 – 1660)- This is the only republic in English history. It was formed after theexecution of Charles I and lasted until the restoration of Charles II in

1660.

Lord Protector- The title held by Oliver Cromwell during his leadership of the

Commonwealth. He refused to take the title of king.

Levellers- A radical English political movement favored voting rights for all men

and even rights for women.

universal manhood suffrage- Political term that means that all adult men have the right to vote.

Rump Parliament- Following the decision to execute Charles I, many former supporters of

the fight against the king turned against Cromwell and withdrew from

the Parliament leaving only the most radical and Puritan elements.

This radical group were nicknamed the “Rump.”

Glorious Revolution (1688)- One of the most important political events in English history, the

monarch, King James II, was removed from the throne and replaced by

a new monarch chosen by the Parliament. It established the

superiority of the Parliament over the monarch in England.

abdicate- The action of a monarch in surrendering their claim to the throne.

Act of Settlement (1701)- A law passed by the English Parliament to ensure that no Catholic

could sit on the throne. It stated that if Queen Anne died with no

surviving children, the throne would go to the German Hannover

dynasty, Protestant cousins of the Stuarts. In 1714, George I was

crowned the first Hannover monarch of England.

figurehead- Someone is supposedly the leader of a nation or organization, but who

exercises no real authority.

Social Contract Theory- This is a political theory that government’s power is given bby the

people, not by God. There is an informal agreement between the

people and the government.

convents- Buildings where Catholic nuns live in common.

monasteries- Buildings where Catholic monks live in common.

Christian Humanism- Renaissance intellectual movement that focused on trying to return the

Church to earlier and more authentic practice of the faith.

advocate- To argue in support of something.

clergy- The formal leaders of any given religion. Examples of clergy would be

priests, bishops, ministers, rabbis, and imams.

layman- A member of a specific religion who is NOT a part of the clergy.

philology- The study of the historical development and origin of language.

Low Countries- Collective term to refer to Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.

patron- Someone who supports the arts or a specific artist.

simony- The act of buying or selling a religious office, such as the position of

bishop.

nepotism- The practice of people in a position of power or influence showing

undue favoritism to family or friends.

pluralism- The practice of certain Church leaders holding more than one religious

office at the same time.

veneration- The action of showing great respect to a created person, such as the

Virgin Mary or a saint.

relic- An ancient item that is associated with a holy figure, such as Christ or

a saint.

indulgences- Actions that a Catholic can undertake to earn forgiveness of sins; in

the 1400’s the Church had begun to sell indulgences angering many.

“Faith and Works”- Catholic teaching that one’s salvation is dependent on both faith and

good works.

“Faith alone, Grace alone, Scripture alone”- Luther’s argument that one’s salvation is dependent on faith only (not

good works), on God’s mercy, and on what is directly written in the

Bible.

excommunication- The action, taken by a religious group, that denies someone the right

to participate in the church community; to eject someone from a

religion.

Diet of Worms- 1521 heresy trial of Martin Luther. He was judged by HRE Charles V.

heresy- To hold positions that are contrary to the accepted teachings of a

religious community.

subject- A person who lives in a nation ruled by a crowned head of state (king,

queen, emperor, etc.).

recant- To assert that one no longer accepts beliefs that one once supported;

to take back something once proclaimed.

papal / papacy- Of, or pertaining to the office of the Pope of the Catholic Church.

celibacy- The act of abstaining from marriage and sexual relations.

vernacular- Any language spoken by the general population of a region, as

opposed to Latin, the language of the Church and education.

Scandinavia- The vast region of Northern Europe that includes the nations of

Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland.

Protestant- Any person who identifies as a Christian, but who is not a part of the

Catholic or Orthodox Christian faiths.

social uprising- A revolt by a specific segment of the population against the ruling

authorities.

status quo- The existing state of affairs, especially regarding religion and politics.

secular- Anything that is not religious in its character or purpose.

temporal- Relating to worldly as opposed to spiritual affairs; secular.

transubstantiation- Catholic teaching that during the mass (religious service) the

communion bread and wine are literally transformed into the actual

body and blood of Christ.

consubstantiation- Protestant teaching that during the communion bread and wine are

only symbolic representations of the actual body and blood of Christ.

predestination- The Calvinist teaching that God has already determined who is saved

and who is damned, even before we are born.

Elect- Calvin’s term for those who God had selected for salvation.

seminaries- Schools where clergy are educated in the beliefs of a specific religion.

Huguenots- French Protestants who followed the teachings of John Calvin.

Icon- Any representation or image of a sacred figure, such as Christ or a

saint.

theocracy- A government dominated by religious leaders.

iconoclastic- The action of attacking or destroying an icon.

Anabaptists- So called “radical” Protestants; the name derives from their practice of

only baptizing adults.

HRE- In context, it can mean either Holy Roman Empire or Holy Roman

Emperor.

Peace of Augsburg- 1555 internal agreement in the Holy Roman Empire that allowed the

ruler of each state in the Empire to select the religion for the people

who live in their state. It briefly ended warfare between Catholics and

Protestants in the Empire.

abdicate- The action of a monarch in surrendering their claim to the throne.

Bourbons- The family that held the throne of France from 1589 until the French

Revolution.

politiques- Term for those nobles and royal figures who supported religious

toleration as a means of restoring domestic peace and strengthening

the nation.

Edict of Nantes- 1598 royal decree issued by King Henry IV of France that granted

religious toleration and control of 200 walled fortified cities to that

nation’s Protestant minority.

Inquisition- Term for religious courts set up by Catholic authorities in Spain to root

out anyone suspected of practicing the Jewish or Muslim religions.

The courts could use torture and death to enforce their power.

annulment- A legal procedure that cancels a marriage as if it had never taken

place.

sacked- A military action in which a victorious army is permitted to rape,

murder, and destroy a conquered city.

illegitimate- Term formerly used to identify a child born to parents who were not

married.

Act of Supremacy- 1534 law passed by the English Parliament naming the king (Henry

VIII) the head of the Church of England. The Act also made it

treasonous for anyone to refuse to accept the new law.

regent- Title for a person selected to hold power when a monarch is either too

young or too ill to rule on their own.

Anglican Church- A synonym for the Church of England, the Protestant faith first

established in the reign of King Henry VIII.

Act of Religious Settlement- 1559 law passed by the English Parliament that made the Anglican

Church the official state church of England and recognized that there

were other faiths in the nation.

Spanish Armada- A massive fleet of over 130 Spanish warships that was sent against

England in 1588. The fleet suffered heavy losses and was a major

disaster for Spain.

Council of Trent- A landmark meeting of Catholic Church leaders, held between 1546 –

1563 for the purpose of developing a response to the Protestant

Reformation.

standardize- To make something uniform, the same.

dogma- The official teachings, beliefs, and practices of a religion.

Index- First compiled at the Council of Trent, this was a list of books that

Catholics were prohibited to read. The Index was abolished in 1966.

Jesuits- A synonym for the Society a Jesus, an order of well-educated Catholic

priests founded by a Spanish priest, Ignatius of Loyola, in 1546.

Baroque- A style of European art, architecture, and music of the 17 th and 18 th

centuries characterized by ornate details and emotional subjects.

Mannerism- A European art movement associated with the late-Renaissance

period of the 16 th century and noted for its sophistication and artificial

style.

Defenestration of Prague- 1618 event that triggered the destructive Thirty Years’ War. Two

representatives of the Holy Roman Emperor were tossed from a high

window by Bohemian Calvinist officials.

evangelized- The act of preaching a religious belief in hopes of winning converts.

lucrative- Something that is profitable or valuable.

New Monarchs- Historical term for those rulers who came to power in the 1500’s and

were able to establish stronger control over their nation’s than

medieval kings ever could.

caravel- Revolutionary Portuguese designed sailing ship capable of handling

the dangers of ocean voyages. The vessels utilized three triangular

sails, a rudder, and a rounded hull.

backstaff / astrolabe / sextant- Each are tools used by navigators to track speed and location using the sun, moon, stars, and the horizon.

portolani- Term for ancient, medieval maps used by early explorers in the 1300’s

and 1400’s. They were highly inaccurate.

Cape of Good Hope- The strategic passage of water at the bottom of the African continent,

marked by stormy seas caused by the meeting of the Atlantic and

Indian oceans.

Malacca- An old name for the islands of Indonesia coveted for their spices and

strategic location.

Treaty of Tordesillas- 1494 agreement negotiated by Pope Alexander VI that split the

unknown world between Spain and Portugal.

circumnavigate- The act of sailing around the world.

conquistadors- Spanish term for the soldiers who brutally conquered the New World

native population in the 1500’s.

Smallpox- A viral infection that caused high fever and an outbreak of painful

blisters all over the body. Over 90% of the infected died.

encomienda- These were large land grants from the Spanish king to Spanish

soldiers serving in the New World. They were given the right to

demand labor from Native Americans living there.

Middle Passage- Term for the horrific journey of the captive African slaves across the

Atlantic to the slave markets of the New World. Millions did not survive

the voyages.

Mestizos- A mixed race people of European and Native American blood.

Mulattos- A mixed race people of European and African blood.

rationalize- To attempt to explain or justify an action or belief that other might find

offensive.

relativism- The belief that knowledge, truth, and morality exist in relation to

culture, society, or historical context and are not absolute.

demographic- The study of people and population.

Columbian Exchange- Term for the back-and-forth, give-and-take relationship between

Europe and the New World. It was marked by the movement of

people, crops, and goods between both hemispheres.

bullion- Precious metals (gold and silver) in bulk form, valued by weight.

inflation- A general increase in prices and a decline in the purchasing power of

the money.

Price Revolution- Term for an economic upheaval that struck Spain and then all of

Europe in the 1500’s and 1600’s. It was marked by inflation that drove

up prices.

barter- The economic system where goods are traded for other goods without

the use of currency.

Global Economy- Term for the beginnings of an intertwined worldwide economy that

linked the four corners of the world through the exchange of goods.

Triangle Trade- Term for the economic relationship between Europe, Africa, and the

New World.

coffee houses- Businesses that emerged in European cities selling coffee, sugar, and

tobacco products imported from the New World. They are good

examples of the global economy.

commercial- A synonym for business.

commercial capitalism- An early form of trade that focused on the movement of goods from a

place where had low value to a place where these same goods could

be sold for more. It is a forerunner of free-trade.

joint-stock corporations- A business model that was based on shared risk and shared reward.

Shares (a portion of ownership) were sold to investors who owned a

share in the entire business.

British East Indies Company- First chartered by Queen Elizabeth I in 1600, the company came to dominate trade in South Asia (India, Sri Lanka, and Singapore) and

Qing China. At its peak, it accounted for 50% of all world trade.

Dutch East Indies Company- First chartered in 1602, this company is considered the world’s first multi-national conglomerate. It built ships, and transported goods such

as Java coffee, Taiwanese sugar, Indian tea and cotton, and South

African wines.

Fuggers- A powerful and wealthy family that dominated the banking industry in

Northern Europe, especially Germany.

bourgeoisie- Term referring to the urban, educated middle and upper classes.

mercantilism- The dominant economic policy of the 1500s – 1750s, it was based on

the formation of self-sufficient national economies. This was achieved

by limiting imports through high tariffs, the development of national

industries, and the acquisition of colonies. It emphasized the

amassing of bullion.

import- A good that is brought into a country from a foreign source.

tariff- A tax placed on imported goods to keep out foreign competition.

domestic- Of, or pertaining to one’s own country.

free-trade- A system of economics that rejected the theory of mercantilism. The

idea is to put as few barriers to trade as possible. The system rejects

all tariffs.

Hanseatic League- German merchant guild that formed during the middle ages

to protect their mutual trading interests

disce aut discede- Latin term that means “learn or leave.”

Black Death- A bacterial disease that devastated many areas of the world. It’s

arrival in Europe in 1348 led to the deaths of millions and a profound

change in society.

Bubonic Plague- A synonym for the Black Death

Constantinople- A city first established by the Roman Emperor Constantine in the 300’s

CE. It was the capital of the Byzantine Empire and later the Ottoman

Empire.

urban- Of, or pertaining to cities.

rural- Of, or pertaining to the countryside.

flagellants- An extremist Catholic religious movement that believed that physical

punishment of the flesh (whipping) could atone for the sins of man.

They believed the plague was a punishment from God.

ghetto- Originally it referred to a specific section of a European city where

Jews were allowed to reside. It was often walled off from Christian

areas.

pogrom- Term for periodic violent attacks on the Jewish population. They were

especially prominent in Eastern Europe (Russia).

anti-Semitism- The hatred of the Jewish population.

first-hand- Something directly witnessed or experienced by the person relating it.

second-hand- Something explained by someone who did not directly witness or

experience it.

Florentine- Of, or pertaining to the Italian city of Florence.

vernacular- Any language spoken by the general population of a region, as

opposed to Latin, the language of the Church and education.

siege- A military tactic where an enemy is completely surrounded and starved

into submission.

Balkan Peninsula- The vast region of southeastern Europe that includes nations such as

Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, and Serbia.

antiquity- Of, or pertaining to anything ancient, or to a period of ancient history.

Middle Ages- The European historical era following the fall of the Roman Empire in

476 CE and the beginning of the Renaissance (1400’s).

medieval- A synonym for the Middle Ages.

transcribe- The action of copying by hand something written.

literate- The ability to read.

illiterate- Lacking the ability to read.

secular- Anything that is not religious in its character or purpose.

classical- Of, or pertaining to ancient Greece and/or ancient Rome.

Italian Renaissance- A distinct period in the 1400’s and 1500’s in which there was a

renewed interest in culture, art, and learning.

papal / papacy- Of, or pertaining to the office of the Pope of the Catholic Church.

lion’s share- An expression that means the biggest and best portion of something.

Doge- The title held by the man elected as ruling prince of the city of Venice.

textile- Of, or pertaining to cloth or to the production of cloth.

Medici- A powerful, wealthy family that dominated the politics of the city of

Florence for much of the Renaissance.

humanism- A Renaissance intellectual movement that rejected medieval focus on

religious causes for all events and looked to Greek and Roman values

for inspiration. Humanists emphasized the potential and goodness of

man and sought rational ways to solve human problems.

oligarchy- Any government dominated by a few wealthy people.

S’forza- A powerful, wealthy family that dominated the politics of the city of

Milan.

mercenary- A soldier who fights for anyone who pays for their services.

patron- Someone who supports the arts or a specific artist.

liberal arts- Courses of study that focus on man and his accomplishments.

skepticism- The philosophical belief that certain knowledge is impossible, to doubt.

theology- The study of religion.

ethics- The study of moral principles and behavior.

Dark Ages- A synonym for the Middle Ages.

philology- The study of the historical development and origin of language.

Vatican- An independent state in the heart of the city of Rome that is ruled by

the Pope. It is the center of the Catholic Church’s governing authority.

Donation of Constantine- A medieval document that was falsely claimed to be a Roman deed

that gave the Catholic Church control over much of Western Europe.

universal truths- Values that are common to all humanity, such as honesty and

kindness.

“Renaissance Man”- Term coined by Castiglione to refer to the ideal man who can do

everything and do it all well.

Civic Humanism- Renaissance intellectual movement that sought to design a more ideal

form of government, inspired by classical Greek and Roman models.

political science- The study of different forms of government.

Christian Humanism- Renaissance intellectual movement that focused on trying to return the

Church to earlier and more authentic practice of the faith.

Flanders- An ancient name for a major region of modern Belgium.

Vulgate Bible- The ancient Latin translation of the Bible used by the medieval Catholic

Church.

Northern Renaissance- Term for the spread of the Renaissance into Northern and Western

Europe, especially Germany and the Netherlands. It was more

focused on religious issues than was the Italian Renaissance.

Low Countries- Collective term to refer to Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.

hierarchical- A societal structure that divides people into different ranks from highest

to lowest.

clergy- The formal leaders of any given religion. Examples of clergy would be

priests, bishops, ministers, rabbis, and imams.

laymember-someone who is a part of a faith but does not have a job within the

religion.

peasants- One of the lower classes, they are rural, agricultural free laborers.

serfs- One of the lower classes, they are rural, agricultural labor who are

bound to the land.

artisans- A type of skilled worker who produces items by hand, such as a tailor,

a shoemaker, or a potter.

guild- A medieval trade organization made up of workers from a common

industry. The guild controlled the training of new members, the quality

of goods produced, and pricing.

rationalize- To attempt to explain or justify an action or belief that other might find

offensive.

primogeniture- The ancient law that the first born male in a family inherited all property

and titles.

feminist- The movement that seeks to elevate the status and opportunities for

females.

querelles de femmes- Term for the centuries long debate about the proper role for women in

European society.

perspective- The artistic technique of creating three-dimensional depth on a flat

surface.

contrapposto- Artistic technique of showing a human figure with the weight on a

single limb.

Gothic- Architectural style associated with the late-Middle Ages and often

characterized with pointed arches, flying buttresses, and the use of

stained glass windows.

New Monarchs- Historical term for those rulers who came to power in the 1500’s and

were able to establish stronger control over their nation’s than

medieval kings ever could.

War of the Roses- A civil war in England from 1455 – 1485 fought for control of the

throne.

Tudor- The family that controlled the English throne from 1485 – 1603.

regicide- The act of killing a ruling monarch.

usurper- Term refers to someone who seizes power that does not rightfully

belong to them.

dynasty- A succession of members of a single family who control or rule a

nation.

Moors- A Muslim people of North African origin who conquered the Iberian

Peninsula in the Middle Ages and ruled much of the region for

centuries.

Iberian Peninsula- Term for the geographic region of southwestern Europe that includes

the nations of Portugal and Spain.

Inquisition- Term for religious courts set up by Catholic authorities in Spain to root

out anyone suspected of practicing the Jewish or Muslim religions.

The courts could use torture and death to enforce their power.

centralized- The concentration of authority and control in a single person or place.

Habsburg- The family that ruled over the Holy Roman Empire, Austria, and Spain

for many centuries.