PHL Long Answer

  1. Behaviorism suggests that the mind can be understood through observable behaviors, while functionalism emphasizes the functional role of mental states; the former focuses on external behaviors, while the latter focuses on internal processes and their functions.

  2. Thomas Nagel argues that subjective conscious experiences, like what it's like to be a bat, cannot be fully grasped by scientific inquiry due to an "explanatory gap" between physical processes and subjective experience; whether one agrees depends on their stance on the limitations of scientific understanding and the nature of consciousness.

  3. Harry Frankfurt contends that unwilling addicts are not responsible for their addiction-related behaviors because their desires do not align with their higher-order volitions; whether one agrees depends on their perspective on agency, free will, and addiction.

  4. The Euthyphro Dilemma questions whether something is good because the gods command it or if the gods command it because it is good, challenging Divine Command Theory; preferences for one horn over the other depend on one's beliefs about the nature of morality and the role of religion in ethics.

  5. Socrates argues that teachers bear responsibility for the ethical use of knowledge they impart, while Gorgias suggests they shouldn't be blamed if their students commit bad acts; whether one agrees depends on their view of educators' ethical obligations and the influence of knowledge on behavior.

  6. Callicles argues that breaking the law and escaping consequences is preferable because laws restrict individuals from fulfilling their natural desires for power and pleasure; whether one agrees depends on their perspective on the nature of laws, morality, and individual freedom.

  7. The desire-satisfaction account of happiness posits that happiness is achieved when desires are fulfilled, but Socrates argues that true happiness comes from living a virtuous and examined life; whether one agrees depends on their beliefs about the nature of happiness and the role of virtue in a fulfilling life.

  8. Aristotle argues that the highest human good consists of rational activity in accordance with virtue, suggesting that humans fulfill their unique function by exercising reason in virtuous actions; whether Aristotle's argument succeeds depends on acceptance of his premises regarding human nature and the teleological view of ethics.

  9. Callicles' account of happiness focuses on fulfilling natural desires for power and pleasure, while Aristotle's emphasizes cultivating virtue and exercising reason for true happiness; preferences between the two depend on views regarding the nature of happiness, virtue, and pleasure versus flourishing.

  10. Quayshawn Spencer defines race as a biological natural kind, rooted in genetic differences, while Sally Haslanger defines race as a social kind, constructed by societal norms and structures; the preference between the two depends on one's view of the primary determinants of racial categories.

  11. Elizabeth Anderson argues that racial discrimination may not always violate principles of fairness or merit, suggesting that in some circumstances, affirmative action or race-based policies can promote equality and correct past injustices; whether one agrees depends on their interpretation of fairness, merit, and the role of social policies in addressing systemic inequalities.

  12. Elizabeth Barnes highlights problems with both natural and social kind theories of gender, suggesting that neither fully captures the complexity and diversity of gender identities and experiences; preferences between the two depend on one's understanding of the social construction and biological aspects of gender, and the importance of inclusive frameworks for understanding gender diversity.