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Caravel – Light, fast sailing ship used by explorers

Ferdinand Magellan – First explorer to try to circumnavigate the globe

Hernán Cortés – Spanish explorer who conquered the Aztec Empire

Francisco Pizarro – Conquered the Inca Empire in Peru

Conquistador – Spanish word for conqueror

Treaty of Tordesillas – Treaty dividing the Americas between Spain and Portugal

Capitalism – Economic system where private individuals own businesses and make profits

Plantations – Large farms where cash crops are grown

Triangular Trade – Trade route moving goods, enslaved people, and raw materials between Europe, Africa, and the Americas

Martin Luther – Started the Reformation

Justification by Faith – Belief that salvation comes through faith, not good works

Protestant Reformation – Movement to reform the Catholic Church

Chinese – Invented gunpowder

Carolus Linnaeus – Classified living organisms

Tycho Brahe – Built an observatory

Nicolaus Copernicus – Said the sun is the center of the universe

Isaac Newton – Formulated the Law of Inertia

Francis Bacon – Father of the scientific method

Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Believed people are naturally good

Renaissance – Means “rebirth”; great revival of art and learning

Monroe Doctrine – U.S. policy warning Europe not to colonize the Americas

John Calvin – Founded the Presbyterian church

Theocracy – Government controlled by religious leaders

Predestination – Belief that God decides who will be saved

Treaty of Paris – Ended the French and Indian War

Declaration of Independence – Document declaring U.S. independence

Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists – Debate over ratifying the Constitution

United States Constitution – Framework of U.S. government

United States Bill of Rights – First 10 amendments protecting freedoms

Reconstruction Amendments – Ended slavery, gave citizenship, and voting rights to Black men

Palm Oil – Major African export used in industrial goods

Jihad – Struggle in Islam (spiritual or physical)

Shaka Zulu – Built a powerful Zulu nation

White Man’s Burden – Belief Europeans had a duty to civilize others

Great Zimbabwe – Massive stone walls built by African civilization

Isthmian Canal Convention – Agreement allowing U.S. to build the Panama Canal

Abolition of Slavery in Cuba (1886) – Slavery ended in Cuba

Abolition of Slavery in Brazil (1888) – Slavery ended in Brazil

American Civil War – War over slavery and states’ rights

Emancipation Proclamation – Freed enslaved people

Manifest Destiny – Belief the U.S. should expand across North America

Suez Canal – Connects Mediterranean Sea to Red Sea

Strait of Hormuz – Narrow waterway important for oil trade

Portuguese – Started the African slave trade

Industrial Revolution – Shift to machine production and factories

James Hargreaves – Machine that spins multiple threads at once

Steam Engine – Machine using steam power for work

Factory Acts – Laws improving working conditions

Tea Act – British law taxing tea

Coercive Acts – Laws punishing American colonies