Language Learning Theories and Communication
Special Cases of Learning Language
Sign Language
Sign language is a mode of communication typically used by communities that include individuals experiencing hearing loss. It relies exclusively on visual communication.
Key Features:
Utilizes hands, facial expressions, and body movements in place of vocal sounds.
Sign Space:
Refers to the three-dimensional area situated in front of the signer’s body.
Functions as a workspace for communication, allowing signers to position, move, and track information within this area.
Sign languages possess their own phonemes, words, grammar, etc.
They exhibit all the characteristics found in spoken languages.
There are numerous sign languages which are typically not universal, including but not limited to:
American Sign Language (ASL)
British Sign Language (BSL)
Bilingualism
Definition:
Bilingualism refers to the proficiency in speaking and understanding two distinct languages.
Predictors for Fluency:
The most significant predictor of bilingual fluency is the age at which an individual is exposed to the second language.
Earlier exposure to the second language typically correlates with greater fluency.
Language Dominance:
In a bilingual context, one language usually becomes dominant, often the first language learned.
Bilingual individuals can achieve proficiency in both languages, but proficiency may vary.
Development Stages:
Bilingual individuals generally pass through the same developmental stages as monolingual individuals.
Syntax development in bilingual individuals may be delayed compared to their monolingual counterparts.
Cognitive Insights:
Bilinguals typically exhibit heightened metalinguistic insight.
They tend to perform better on language-related tasks, demonstrating an awareness of how language is structured and utilized.
Critical Periods for Learning Language
Critical Period Definition:
A critical period refers to a developmental phase or time window during which acquiring a skill or ability, such as language learning, is most effective.
Influence of Exposure Age:
The age at which an individual is exposed to a language has a profound impact on the success of language acquisition.
Early exposure typically enhances learning capacity.
Sensitive Period vs. Critical Period:
Not strictly a critical period for language development; instead, it is more accurately described as a sensitive period.
During this sensitive period, individuals are more receptive to learning languages.
Language learning does not become impossible after this sensitive period; however, it does tend to become slower, less automatic, and often less complete.
Children vs. Adults:
Younger individuals generally learn new languages more effectively due to several factors:
Children have limited information-processing abilities and analytical skills.
Children possess less specific knowledge about how language operates than adults.
In contrast, adults apply more organization and structure while learning a language, which can hinder their effectiveness in acquiring new languages.
Theoretical Accounts of Language Acquisition
Nature & Nurture Account:
This theory posits that children learn language primarily through imitation.
It suggests that babies hear language utilized in systematic ways and subsequently learn to use language similarly to adults.
Limitations:
Fails to provide a comprehensive explanation for the generative nature of language, which allows for the creation of an infinite number of unique sentences through novel combinations of words.
Nativist Account:
Proposes that children are innately equipped with basic knowledge about language structure.
Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device (LAD):
A hypothetical construct posited in the brain where syntactic knowledge resides.
It is theorized that children are pre-programmed with the capacity to utilize language effectively.
Key Limitations of Nativist Claims:
Many assertions made by this theory are challenging to falsify.
Social Pragmatics Account:
This theory contends that specific elements of a child's social environment shape language learning.
Children can infer word and sentence meanings through conversational context and social interactions.
Assumptions & Weaknesses:
Assumes infants possess a deep understanding of others’ thoughts and communicative intentions.
General Cognitive Processing Account:
Suggests that language learning is a result of general cognitive skills applied across various activities.
Proposes that children's ability to perceive, recognize, and learn patterns aids in language acquisition.
Challenges to This Perspective:
Children outperform adults in language acquisition, while adults excel in general learning tasks.
Specific brain areas are actively engaged during language learning, notably:
Broca’s Area: Responsible for speech production.
Wernicke’s Area: Responsible for speech comprehension.
Non-human Animal Communication
Variability in Animal Communication:
Different animal species exhibit varying complexities and types of communication, including:
Scent marking
Visual communication (e.g., displays of teeth)
Most animals communicate with a fixed number of expressions corresponding to a limited number of messages.
Types of Communication:
Broadly, animal communication serves two primary purposes:
Reproduction
Aggression
Some species use communication for additional purposes:
Bees communicate the location of food sources.
Vervet monkeys signal the presence of imminent danger or predators.
Teaching Language to Animals:
Attempts have been made to teach animals human language, yielding largely unsuccessful results.
Limited successes have been documented with species such as:
Chimpanzees
Bonobos
African grey parrots
These outcomes emphasize that humans possess a unique proficiency for utilizing language in sophisticated manners.
Connecting Language & Reading
Process of Reading:
Much like language, reading increasingly evolves into an automatic process, except when confronted with challenges that require engagement and problem-solving.
Stroop Effect:
A task demonstrating the automaticity of language—participants are slower to accurately name the color of ink when it conflicts with the printed word itself, leading to increased errors.
Learning to Read
Skills Required for Reading Mastery:
Two essential skills must be acquired by beginners to become proficient readers:
Whole Word Recognition Technique:
Involves recognizing familiar words based on their visual appearance and patterns.
This skill is vital for reading to become an automatic process.
Phonetic Decomposition Technique:
Involves sounding out unfamiliar words by determining relationships between letters and sounds.
Applies effectively for simple words (e.g., cat → /k/ + /a/ + /t/)
Effectiveness of Speed Reading
Speed-Accuracy Tradeoff in Reading:
A fundamental phenomenon indicating that the quicker one reads, the more information is likely to be omitted.
Research indicates that reading speeds exceeding 400 words per minute (WPM) generally lead to a decline in comprehension levels.
Speed reading courses primarily focus on hastening reading pace but may result in diminished understanding of the material compared to slower, more thorough reading.