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Scientific Revolution - chapter 16


KNOW LOTS ABOUT NEWTON, GALILEO, KEPLER, COPERNICUS, PASCAL, DESCARTES, GALEN

  • Medicine people 1 = Vesalius

  • Anatomical studies

    • Dissected human bodies, unethically

      • Began the process vs ethics debate

    • Discovered a lot of things about the body and published it for everyone to know

    • Helped William Harvey make his discoveries


  • Medicine people 2 = William Harvey

    • Researched blood vessel system

      • Found out that unlike previous, there is only one blood flow in body


  • Medicine people 3 = Paracelsus

    • Macro-microcosm theory

      • People are smaller versions of universes


  • Scientific thinkers 1 = Descartes

    • Dualism (separation between mind and body)

    • Deductive reasoning

    • Some of his books placed on the index of forbidden books

      • Questioned everything he can

      • Reason in the primary source of knowledge


  • Scientific thinker 2= Francis Bacon

    • Emphasized observation

      • Believed that this was the way to scientific discovery

    • Laid foundation for scientific method

      • Did not create it


  • Scientific thinker 3= Benedict de Spinoza

    • Pantheism/Monism

      • We are the universe, God is the universe, so we are a part of God

    • Rationalism and Empiricism

      • Said “we can both rely on reason as well as on sensory experience”

      • Emphasized using reason to reach happiness


  • Scientific thinker 4= Pascal

    • Context: Protestants and Catholics are denying science more and more

      • Tries to unite religion and science


  • Astronomers 1 = Copernicus

  • Discovers Heliocentrism, the fact the earth revolves around the sun

    • He waits to publish his findings until right before his death, out of fear of persecution from the church


  • Tycho Brahe

    • Set up an observatory on an island using his wealth and FILL IN LATER



  • Astronomers 3 = Johannes Kepler

    • Piggybacked off of Brahe

    • Laws of Planetary Motion

      • Elliptical orbits

      • Planets move faster when they are closer to the sun and slower when they are farther from the sun

      • Law of Harmonies


  • Physicists 1 = Galileo

    • Trailblazer used telescope to discover things

      • Sunspots

        • Others - sun and everything out there is heavenly matter

        • Him - “nah sun boom sometimes”

        • Others: “woah!!”

      • Inertia 

        • Others - god makes things move

        • Him - nah inertia does

        • Others - woah

      • Beefed with the pope

        • Clowned on the pope, so pope starts rejecting his ideas and acts hostile towards scientific community generally

  • Physicists 2 = Newton - Bridge between SR and E

    • DISCOVERED SO MUCH STUFF

      • Made Calculus

      • Law of Universal Gravitation

      • 3 Laws of motion

    • Made new Ideas

      • Newtonian World Machine

        • Universe is just a machine, everything follows laws of time, space, and motion

        • Very secular, took away idea of God making things happening

      • Pieced together Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo astronomy in Principia

  • Querelles de Femme

    • Increased reason means that women’s rights will be more recognized, right?

      • WRONGGGG

    • “Women in question”

    • EVEN MORE PATRIARCHAL

  • Women 1 = Margaret Cavendish

    • Natural Philosophy

      • Made works on nature and biology under her husbands name

      • Turned down from English Royal Society

    • How to remember her - cavenDISH → Petri Dish → Biology


  • Women 2 = Maria Merian

    • Insect Studier

      • Went to Surinam (South America) to study insects and their anatomy


  • Women 3 = Maria Winkelmann

    • Wife and mother of astronomers

    • Tried to go to berlin academy but was rejected because she was a woman

    • Remember as winkel winkel little star


  • Religion

    • Protestants take on science:

      •  “Nah we reject it, it’s not in the Bible so it doesn’t mean anything”

    • Catholic take on science: 

      • At first: “Maybe it's true… we don’t know yet”

      • Then Galileo clowns on Church

      • Then “Science is heresy” and put a lot of science books on index of forbidden books


  • Major Scientific Groups

    • English Royal Society

      • Privately owned

      • Gate kept pamphlets from non-members

      • Anti- Government (def wasn’t helping)

    • French Royal Society

      • Government owned

      • Made magazines for public consumption

      • Pro-absolutism


  • Motivations to Scientific Revolution - VERY IMPORTANT

    • Businesses:

      • New inventions= more money

        • (mining, metalworking, trade, agriculture)

    • Religious

      • Reign in the Puritans (who were often Hermeticist) by showing science instead of magic

    • Government:

      • Making army innovations

      • Making bridges

    • Social Status

      • Rich people tried to be cool by pretending to be scientists


CHAPTER 17 THE ENLIGHTENMENT

MONTESQUIEU, DIDEROT, VOLTAIRE, ROSSEAU, AND ADAM SMITH


  • Newtonian World Machine

    • Newton created a lot of laws like the Laws of Motion and Universal Gravitation

    • The ideas of there being set laws for the entirety of science inspired thinkers to try and make laws for society.

    • “If we can determine the rulebook for science, why can’t we determine the rulebook for society?”

    • Thinkers, called Philosophes set out to find these rules

  • Political 1 = Baron de Montesquieu

    • Mr. Separation of Power The Spirit of Laws

      • Government needs 3 branches (exec, leg, jud)

        • To prevent from absolutism and tyranny

        • Needed checks and balances on each other to make sure one doesn’t get to powerful

      • Insulted French absolutism by using Persian as a pseudonym

        • Persian letters

      • Embodied the ideal of finding laws and natural rights for society

  • Political 2 =  Voltaire

    • Insulted french absolutism by simping for british constitutional republic

      • Liked their constitutional rights and separation of powers

        • Rights: speech, bear arms, petition, parliamentary supremacy

        • Lettres Philosophiques, Letters on the English

    • Progressive views

      • Pro-religious toleration, critical of organized religion, was a deist

        • Treatise on Tolerance

      • Pro-women in the Querelles de Femme

    • Critical, satirical, and witty eye

      • Candide

    • Disliked french, prussians, and the HRE advocate for reason being supreme diest

    • Diest

      • A man being divine is too extreme, and took out everything from Bible that said “Jesus was God”

  • Political 3 = Beccaria

    • Progressive and rational views on crime and punishment On Crimes and Punishments

      • Against torture bc its cruel and could lead to false confessions

      • Against capital punishment bc its unnecessary and irreversible (exoneration)

      • Argued for proportionate punishment and deterrence and rehabilitation rather than vengeance punishment

      • Argued that all laws should be public

  • Intellectual 1- Diderot

    • Made the Encyclopedia, collection of knowledge

      • Exemplified the Enlightenment ideal that everything can be discovered, empiricism

      • Thought that mass consumption would create a more worldly society

      • Madame Geoffrin contributed (more on her later maybe)

    • Philosopher

      • Discussed human behavior, relationships, fate, morality, society, free will

      • “Jacques the Fatalist and His Master”, “Rameau’s Nephew”

    • Pro Religious toleration and critic of organized religion


  • Intellectual 2 - Jean de Condorcet

    • Believed in 10 stages of history, with the contemporary on being the 10th, the blissful one

      • Believed we needed education and stuff


  • Intellectual 3 = Rousseau

    • Father of general will (the social contract)

      • Believed in popular sovereignty, and the ideal that a ruler should follow the populations general will

    • Romanticist

      • Emphasized emotion, individuality, and nature, all Romanticist

    • Revolutionized education with Emile

      • Said education should be child-centered allowing natural development of abilities and interests

      • Emphasized learning through experience and the importance of fostering moral and emotional growth

    • Fought against women’s rights in Emile

      • Said that women should be kept to domesticity, and should only aim to please their husbands

    • Diest


  • Economy: Adam Smith

    • Father of Capitalism (Wealth of Nations)

      • Criticized Mercantilism, saying that productivity was the true measure of wealth for a nation

      • Laissez-faire economist

        • Advocated for very limited governmental involvement in economy, “don’t mess with the invisible hand”

        • Government should only protect property, enforce contracts, and provide public goods

      • Believed in the division of labor, which would lead to the factory system (microcosmic), and international trade and specialization (macrocosmic)

    • Inspired by the Physiocrats


  • Religion 1 = Holbach

    • Atheist Materialist

      • Didn’t believe in anything supernatural, but opted for a belief where everything can be explained by natural processes and laws

      • Hated religion, believed that it stood in the way of human progress

      • Believed in determinism, that everything is determined that we have no free will

      • Believed that ethics should be based on reason rather than religion

    • Most radical thinker of the Enlightenment


  • Protestantism during Enlightenment

    • Lutheranism

      • Lutherans became much more skeptical of religion because they couldn't physically observe god (SciRev and enlightenment was all about rationalism and experimentation)

      • Reaction of (German) Pietism, where lutheranism was revived and brought back to life as a religion

    • Methodism

      • John Wesley, an Anglican soapbox preacher, wanted to reform the Anglican church and preached to the common people about this.

      • When he died, his followers, instead of staying in the Anglican church like Wesley wanted, split off and made the Methodist Church

      • Gained minority population in UK, US, and Canada


  • Salons

    • Meeting places where intellectuals went to disperse knowledge, party, and have fun

    • They were hosted by rich women such as:

      • Geoffrin

        • She helped Diderot with the Encyclopedia

      • Defford

        • She was the biggest host of the salons


  • Art

    • ROCOCO ART

      • Playful, light, emotional, display of aristocratic life

      • Typically in salons, they use to discuss controversial political topics

    • Neoclassicism

      • Renaissance art 2.0

        • Inspo from Greco-Roman myths

    • Baroque

      • Dramatic lighting to display someone’s glory

      • Monarchs and Church patronized this kind of art


  • Enlightened Absolutism

    • Rulers wanted to maintain absolute power, but they also wanted to not get overthrown by pro-Enlightenment people who advocated for more rights.  So they created this.

    • Enlightened (SOCIAL, RELIGIOUS, INTELLECTUAL)

      • Allowed subjects some freedoms and rights:

        • Toleration

        • Administrative Reforms

        • Crime and Punishment

        • Corruption

      • Tried to improve situation of subjects

        • Social welfare programs

        • Education support

    • Absolutist (ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL)

      • Tried to centralize and greaten their own power as much as possible

      • Greatened their own power over the state

        • Expanding a central bureaucracy

        • Making government streamlined and more efficient

        • Retained absolute power over all branches of government and military (anti-Enlightenment)

      • Greatened their power abroad

        • Expanded military

        • Mercantilist

  • Prussia

    • Frederick William I - Centralizer

      • Made a strong and centralized bureaucracy and army.

      • Exchanged taking away privileges from nobles with giving them positions i gov and army

      • “Walked so Frederick II (the great) could run”

    • Frederick II (the great) - enlightened absolutist

      • Made a code of laws (toleration, justice, education, elimination of torture)

      • Very interested in enlightenment and corresponded with voltaire

      • Patron of the arts

      • Buffed the army, and expanded Prussia greatly

        • First Silesian War (1740-1745)

        • Seven Years War (1756-1763)

        • Partition of Poland (1772)

  • Partition of Poland

    • Russia (catherine the great) and Austria (maria theresa) both wanted to expand into poland and the balkans, and it was looking like they were going to war

    • Prussia (Frederick II) also wanted Poland, so he said “guys why don't we split up Poland so we’re all happy and don’t have to go into a deadly war?”

    • Everyone agrees

  • Austria

    • Never ended up becoming Enlightened- too many nationalities, it’s hard to make changes for all of them

    • Maria Theresa- rough start following 1st and 2nd Silesian Wars

      • Very Catholic and Anti-Enlightenment

      • Made administration more efficient

      • Then tries taking Silesia back in 7 Years War, and loses

    • Joseph II (enlightened absolutist)

      • Very influenced by enlightenment ideals, opposite of his mother

      • Reforms:

        • Abolish serfdom

        • Enlightened legal code (fair and no death penalty)

        • Equality before the law for all citizens

        • Religious toleration

  • Centralization

    • Strengthened central authority

    • Made German official language

    • Expanded control over education

  • His miserably failed in everything too much change in too little time, were not popular changes

  • Manny of the reforms get rolled back: tolerance, serfdom, centralization, education, legal reforms


  • Russia

    • Peter III- young, incompetent, and lazy czar/emperor.  Married Catherine (soon to be “the Great”

    • Catherine throws a coup and become ruler because of her husband's laziness

      • Pro enlightenment

      • Nobles were anti-enlightenment so she distracted nobles by making 50 provinces, each with little districts, distracted by having them rule the places

      • Charter of nobility - “cabinet” of nobles that were discussing the reforms and approving them

    • Instruction- a document with a plan to implement Enlightenment ideals

      • Questioned serfdom, torture, capital punishment

      • Pro-Equality of all people in the eyes of the law

    • Pugachev’s rebellion- started by cossacks, got peasants to join in

      • Swiping landlords estate and stuff

      • Cossacks: Nomadic tribe, south of Russia.  Didn’t like the Russian government

      • Failed

    • Expanded into Poland and towards Black Sea


  • Agricultural Revolution

    • Causes:

      • Age of exploration

        • Much more land and new crops from new world

        • Farming technology (SciRev)

          • Jethro Tull - seed drill

        • Better climate

          • Little ice age affects becoming not as bad

  • Effects:

    • More crops, less people working in the field

      • Enclosure Acts- landowners enclosing communal fields into small private property.  People forced to urbanize

    • More pasture land (America) = more meat

    • Cottage industry (capitalism)

      • People working on textiles at home, industrial

SOCIAL

  • Villages

    • Mini governments

      • Village elders keep an eye on everyone, especially young people who may fornicate

      • They collected taxes and kept up infrastructure

      • The church was the dominant institution in the villages

      • It maintains public order

      • Tithes

        • Villagers collect crops for the church, but then nobles steal it