M_20-22__Learning_Powerpoint_-_student_copy

Learning

• Definition: A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

Classical Conditioning (CC)

• Overview: Developed by Ivan Pavlov in the early 1900s.

• Key Concepts:

  • Stimulus: Any event or situation that evokes a response.

  • CC Definition: A neutral stimulus elicits a response after being paired with a naturally occurring stimulus that brings about that response.

  • Key Aspect: Learning involves making associations between two stimuli.

  • Nature of Response: Responses are involuntary or automatic.

Process of Classical Conditioning

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially does not evoke a response.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Naturally brings about a response.

  • Example: Food (US) leads to salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR).

• Conditioning Process:

  • During conditioning, the NS is paired with the US.

  • After conditioning, the NS becomes the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and elicits a Conditioned Response (CR).

Example Illustration:

• Before Conditioning: CS (Tone of C) + US (Food) = No salivation.

• During Conditioning: US (Food) causes UR (Salivation).

• After Conditioning: CS (Tone of C) causes CR (Salivation).

Types of Conditioned Responses

• Physiological Responses: E.g., salivation, change in heart rate.

• Muscular Reflexes: E.g., involuntary muscle movement, flinching.

• Emotions: E.g., mood states like happiness and anger.

• Attitudes: Automatic judgments of things (likes and dislikes).

Emotional Conditioning

• Example: John Watson's study with Little Albert shows emotional responses can be conditioned.

Application of Classical Conditioning in Advertising

• Process:

  • Neutral Stimulus (Rx product) paired with Unconditioned Stimulus (people having fun) creates a positive response.

  • Outcome: Consumers associate Rx products with happiness.

Generalization and Discrimination

• Generalization: Stimuli similar to CS can elicit CR.

  • Example: Pavlov’s experiment with dogs salivating to various body stimulations.

• Discrimination: The ability to differentiate between CS and other stimuli; only similar but distinct stimuli will not elicit CR.

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

• Extinction: The CR diminishes over time without the US present.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The CR can re-emerge after a period of rest following extinction.

Graphical Representation of Extinction:

• Acquisition (initial learning), Extinction (CR decreases), followed by Spontaneous Recovery (reemergence of CR).

Operant Conditioning

• Overview: Learning an association between a behavior and its consequences.

• Response Nature: Voluntary behaviors.

Law of Effect (Thorndike)

• Principle: Behaviors followed by favorable consequences are likely to recur, while those with unfavorable consequences are less likely to recur.

Reinforcement

• Types:

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus; e.g., getting food for pressing a bar.

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus; e.g., pressing a bar to stop a loud noise.

Punishment

• Types:

  • Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus; e.g., a reprimand for bad behavior.

  • Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus; e.g., taking away privileges.

Comparing Reinforcement and Punishment

• Reinforcement increases behavior,

• Punishment decreases behavior.

Examples of Reinforcement and Punishment in Action

• Positive Reinforcement: Getting a high five after scoring; A dog gets petted for coming when called.

• Negative Reinforcement: Taking painkillers to end pain; buckling a seatbelt to stop a warning sound.

• Positive Punishment: Spraying water on a barking dog; receiving a traffic ticket.

• Negative Punishment: Withdrawing driving privileges from a misbehaving teen.

Practical Examples of Reinforcement & Punishment

• Situational stimuli applying to personal experiences, demonstrating the principles of operant conditioning.

Factors Influencing Reinforcement Effectiveness

• Magnitude: Size of the reinforcer.

• Immediacy: Time between behavior and reinforcer.

• Learner's Motivation: Individual learner’s readiness.

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Summary

Cognitive Processes in Learning

• Latent Learning: Learning that is not evident until there’s a reason to demonstrate it.

• Cognitive Maps: Mental representations of spatial arrangements, like navigating a maze.

Observational Learning (Modeling)

• Definition: Learning by observing others.

• Example: Children mimic behaviors seen in models; influences include prosocial and antisocial behaviors.

  • Supported by Albert Bandura's studies, especially regarding the depiction of violence in media.

Summary of Types of Learning