D and F again
Public Policymaking Process
Steps in Public Policymaking
Step 1: Agenda Setting - Involves identifying issues that gain media attention and public concern, leading to a policy agenda that politicians address. A focusing event, such as a natural disaster or a significant political event, can catalyze this process.
Step 2: Framing - This step involves defining the problem, understanding its severity, and determining the appropriate governmental response. For example, the debate over mask mandates in schools during the COVID-19 pandemic illustrates how framing can influence public perception and policy decisions.
Step 3: Policy Formation - This includes analyzing potential policies through methods like cost-benefit analysis, which assesses the projected costs and benefits of a proposed policy. The concept of a policy window refers to the opportune moment for passing legislation, often influenced by political climate and public opinion.
Step 4: Policy Implementation - This step can be approached from both top-down and bottom-up perspectives, focusing on how policies are executed at various levels of government and the challenges that arise during implementation.
Step 5: Policy Evaluation and Feedback - Involves assessing the effectiveness of a policy in achieving its goals, often through ex post evaluations that compare intended outcomes with actual results.
Case Study: Marijuana Policy
As of summer 2022, various states have adopted differing marijuana policies, reflecting the complexities of public opinion and state versus federal law.
The evolution of marijuana policy serves as a case study in the public policymaking process, illustrating agenda setting, framing, and the challenges of implementation and evaluation.
The debate over legalization highlights the role of public opinion in shaping policy agendas and the importance of framing in influencing legislative outcomes.
Understanding Social Policy
Definition and Goals of Social Policy
Social Policy - Refers to government programs aimed at promoting social welfare, focusing on three main goals: protecting against risk and insecurity, reducing poverty, and expanding opportunities for citizens.
These goals are often politically contentious, reflecting differing ideologies about the role of government in social welfare.
The American welfare state is characterized by its focus on middle-class assistance, distinguishing it from welfare systems in other countries.
Historical Context of Social Policy
Throughout the 19th century, the U.S. government largely refrained from welfare involvement, driven by a belief in individualism and the promise of opportunity in the western frontier.
The Great Depression marked a pivotal shift, bringing social policy to the forefront of political discourse and leading to the establishment of programs like Social Security.
The unique American approach to social policy emphasizes assistance to the middle class, which has shaped the development of welfare programs.
U.S. Social Policy Framework
Key Components of U.S. Social Policy
Old Age Insurance - Social Security, which constitutes about 5% of GDP, is financed through payroll taxes and provides benefits to retirees.
Unemployment Benefits - Administered by states with federal oversight, these benefits support individuals who are temporarily out of work.
Health and Disability Programs - Medicare and Medicaid are crucial components, with Medicare serving older adults and Medicaid assisting low-income individuals.
Federal Poverty Line and Entitlement Programs
The federal poverty line is a threshold that determines eligibility for various federal benefits, reflecting the government's role in addressing poverty.
Entitlement Programs - These are government programs that guarantee certain benefits to eligible individuals, highlighting the legal rights of citizens to receive assistance.
Economic Policymaking
Fiscal and Monetary Policy
Fiscal Policy - Involves government taxing and spending decisions aimed at influencing economic growth and stability.
Monetary Policy - Managed by central banks, primarily the Federal Reserve, it focuses on controlling the money supply and interest rates to achieve economic objectives.
Tools of monetary policy include setting the discount rate, controlling reserve requirements, and conducting open market operations.
Goals of Economic Policy
The government aims to promote stable markets, ensuring consumer confidence through regulatory agencies like the SEC.
Economic prosperity is pursued through growth (measured by GDP), full employment, and low inflation, which are critical indicators of economic health.
The interplay between fiscal and monetary policy is essential for achieving these economic goals.
The Federal Budget Process
Overview of the Federal Budget Process
The federal budget deficit represents the gap between government revenues and expenditures, necessitating careful planning and management.
The budget process begins with the President's proposal, submitted in early February, and is coordinated by the Office of Management and Budget.
Congress plays a crucial role in the budget process, with the ability to modify or reject the President's proposal, reflecting the checks and balances inherent in U.S. governance.
Timeline and Key Players in Budgeting
The fiscal year runs from October 1 to September 30, establishing a timeline for budget planning and execution.
Key players include the President, Congress, and various government agencies, each with distinct roles in shaping the federal budget.
Economic Policymaking: The Federal Budget Process
Congressional Budget Resolution
The budget resolution is a joint creation by the House and Senate that outlines targets for federal spending, revenue levels, and the expected budget deficit or surplus for the upcoming fiscal year.
The budget committees in both the House and Senate are responsible for the majority of the work involved in drafting the budget resolution.
Differences between the House and Senate versions of the budget resolution are reconciled in a conference committee, which aims to create a unified budget plan.
The budget resolution serves as a framework for subsequent appropriations bills, guiding how funds will be allocated across various government departments and programs.
Appropriations Committee Action
The Appropriations Committees in both chambers specify which departments and programs will receive funding and how much they will get.
The budget is divided into twelve separate jurisdictions, each managed by an Appropriations subcommittee responsible for discretionary spending.
After a subcommittee approves a budget, it must pass through the full Appropriations Committee before being presented to the floor for a vote.
This process ensures that funding decisions are made with input from various stakeholders and reflect the priorities of Congress.
Discretionary Programs and Continuing Resolutions
Discretionary programs refer to non-entitlement spending that Congress decides on annually, allowing for flexibility in budget allocations.
A continuing resolution is a temporary funding measure that Congress must pass if a national budget has not been approved before the start of a new fiscal year, allowing government operations to continue at current funding levels.
Continuing resolutions can lead to uncertainty in funding for various programs and may hinder long-term planning and implementation.
Foreign-Policy Goal No. 1: Security
Military Primacy and Realism
Security is defined as the protection of the nation and its values from external threats, primarily through military strength.
The doctrine of military primacy asserts that the U.S. should maintain an unrivaled military capability to deter threats and ensure national security.
Realism emphasizes that nation-states seek to amass power for self-preservation, often leading to increased military spending as a necessary cost of security.
The U.S. military budget is substantial, often exceeding one trillion dollars annually, reflecting the high cost of maintaining military readiness.
Liberalism and Alternative Views
Liberalism presents a contrasting view, suggesting that cooperation among nation-states, facilitated by international organizations, leads to greater security.
Critics of military primacy argue that reliance on military force can create a security trap, where aggressive actions provoke backlash and instability.
The emphasis on military power can undermine civil liberties and democratic values, leading to a debate on the balance between security and freedom.
Soft power, which includes cultural influence and diplomacy, is increasingly recognized as a vital component of national security strategy.
Foreign Aid and National Security
The U.S. is the largest foreign aid donor globally, contributing less than 1% of its gross national income to assist other nations.
Proponents of foreign aid argue that it fosters stability and security by supporting development in vulnerable countries.
Critics contend that foreign aid can create dependency and may not always lead to positive outcomes, raising questions about its effectiveness as a security strategy.
Foreign-Policy Goal No. 2: Prosperity
Economic Power and Global Standing
The U.S. is considered a superpower due to its economic strength, with the dollar serving as the international reserve currency.
The U.S. economy is characterized by its size and influence, although it faces challenges from rising powers like China.
A trade deficit occurs when a nation imports more than it exports, impacting economic stability and international relations.
Free trade is advocated as a means to enhance economic growth, while protectionism seeks to shield local industries from foreign competition.
Challenges to Free Trade
Free trade can lead to job losses and economic displacement in certain sectors, prompting calls for fair trade practices that include labor and environmental protections.
The cost of production in countries with lax regulations can create an uneven playing field, raising ethical concerns about global trade practices.
Social displacement and volatile markets are significant challenges associated with free trade, leading to political and economic instability.
Protectionist measures are often proposed in response to these challenges, but they can also lead to trade wars and retaliatory actions.
Economic Weapons and Their Impact
Economic weapons include boycotts, embargoes, divestment, and freezing assets, which are tools used to exert pressure on other nations.
While these measures aim to achieve political goals, they often disproportionately affect ordinary citizens rather than the elite.
The effectiveness of economic sanctions is debated, as they can lead to unintended consequences and may not always achieve desired outcomes.
Building an international coalition is crucial for the success of economic weapons, as unilateral actions may lack legitimacy.
Who Makes Foreign Policy?
Role of Congress
The Constitution delineates foreign policy powers between Congress and the President, with Congress holding the authority to declare war, set military budgets, and ratify treaties.
The War Powers Act of 1973 was enacted to increase congressional oversight of military actions, requiring the President to seek approval for military engagements within sixty days.
Despite these powers, the trend has shifted towards greater executive control over foreign policy, particularly in times of crisis.
Role of the President
The President commands the military, negotiates treaties, and plays a key role in shaping foreign policy through executive actions.
The President's ability to rally public support during crises is crucial for maintaining legitimacy and effectiveness in foreign policy decisions.
The President often collaborates with various agencies and departments to implement foreign policy strategies.
Role of the State Department and Other Agencies
The State Department is the primary agency for managing diplomatic relations, negotiating treaties, and distributing foreign assistance.
It emphasizes diplomatic solutions but often faces budget constraints that limit its effectiveness.
The Department of Defense, as the largest government organization, has a different perspective on foreign policy, often prioritizing military solutions over diplomatic ones.
Other executive agencies, such as the National Security Council and the Office of U.S. Trade Representative, also play significant roles in shaping foreign policy.
Grand Strategies in U.S. History
Standing Alone (1918–1939)
The U.S. initially adopted an isolationist stance after World War I, focusing on domestic issues and avoiding entanglement in foreign conflicts.
President Wilson's vision of spreading democracy was largely rejected by Congress, leading to a period of limited international engagement.
The U.S. intervened primarily when its own interests were threatened, marking a cautious approach to foreign policy.
The Cold War (1945–1989)
The attack on Pearl Harbor marked the end of isolationism, leading to a more active U.S. role in global affairs during the Cold War.
The U.S. emerged as a leader of the free world, opposing the Soviet Union and promoting multilateralism to achieve common goals.
Containment became the central strategy to prevent the spread of communism, leading to U.S. involvement in various international conflicts.
The New World Order and The War on Terror
The fall of the Berlin Wall signaled a shift in U.S. foreign policy towards promoting democracy and stability globally.
The War on Terror, initiated after the 9/11 attacks, focused on combating terrorism through military intervention and intelligence operations.
Controversial strategies such as preemptive war and the establishment of the Department of Homeland Security emerged during this period, reflecting a shift in national security priorities.