Sociological Perspectives on Health and Illness

Module Overview

• Focus: Sociological perspectives on health and illness.

Defining Health

• Health Continuum: Health is often viewed on a continuum, with health at one end and death on the other.
• WHO Definition (1946): Defines health as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, not just the absence of disease.
• Social Construction: Health and illness are shaped by cultural and social perceptions; individuals may define their health status based on personal and social influences.

Control Over Definitions of Health and Illness

• Authority Figures: Definitions of health are influenced by various stakeholders (healthcare providers, pharmaceutical companies, food providers).
• Implications: Who defines health can greatly affect social perceptions of illness and the consequences of being labeled as sick.

Sociological Perspectives on Health and Illness

Functionalist Perspective

• Role of Illness: Illness disrupts social interactions; society needs to manage who is considered sick.
• Sick Role: Introduced by Talcott Parsons, the sick role involves:
  • Exemption from normal responsibilities.
  • Obligation to seek medical care and attempt recovery.
• Social Stability: Sickness is viewed as a dysfunctional state that needs control to maintain societal stability.
• Gatekeeping by Physicians: Doctors determine whether someone fits the sick role, thereby reinforcing social norms about health.
• Critiques of the Sick Role:
  • Influenced by age, gender, and social class (e.g., varying perceptions of health in different demographics).
  • More applicable to short-term illnesses than chronic ones.
  • Occupation impacts recognition of illness (e.g., athletes may see injuries as part of the sport).

Conflict Perspective

• Medicalization of Society: Sociology theorist Elliot Friedson discussed how medicine operates as social control—it defines health and maintains authority over health-related matters.
• Expansion of Medical Domain: Medicine has expanded to encompass a wide range of social issues, not just physical ailments.
• Healthcare Inequities:
  • Medical resources are often concentrated in wealthier areas, causing disparities in healthcare availability.
  • For example, the U.S. has 26 physicians per 10,000 people, while African nations average fewer than 2.
• Brain Drain: Skilled healthcare workers often immigrate to developed nations, creating a shortage in their home countries, which exacerbates global health disparities.
• Life Expectancy and Health Inequity: Significant disparities in life expectancy and infant mortality rates exist, often influenced by economic conditions and healthcare access.

Interactionist Perspective

• Active Role of Patients: Patients engage with healthcare systems rather than being passive recipients of treatment.
• Physician-Patient Dynamics:
  • Medical roles are learned through socialization (e.g., training of doctors).
  • Technology (like electronic health records) affects doctor-patient interaction, potentially reducing personal engagement during visits.

Labeling Perspective

• Social Definition: Health conditions are often socially defined by the medical profession.
• Impact of Labels: Labels influence how individuals are treated by society and how they perceive themselves.
• Historical Context: Example of how racial and social dynamics led to discriminatory labeling of health (e.g., slavery viewed as a form of illness).
• Modern Concerns: Digital medical records can stigmatize individuals and affect their social identity.
• Controversial Labels: Conditions (like PMS, PTSD) raised scrutiny regarding whether they should be classified as medical illnesses.
• Homosexuality: Historically labeled as a mental illness, showcasing how social constructs of normalcy evolve and influence societal perceptions.

Key Terms

• Brain Drain: Migration of skilled workers from developing countries to developed ones.
• Health: A condition of complete well-being.
• Infant Mortality Rate: Deaths of infants under one year per 1,000 live births.
• Labeling Theory: The idea that the labels society assigns influence perceptions of individuals.
• Medical Model: A framework for understanding illness based on biological and physical factors.
• Sick Role: The expected behavior and responsibilities of a person identified as ill.