Anatomy and Physiology Review Flashcards

Unit 3: Vital Signs, Circulatory, and Respiratory Systems

Vital Signs Measurements and Equipment

  • Vital Sign: Temperature
    • Equipment: Thermometer
    • Normal Temperature: 98.6 ∘F98.6\,^{\circ}\text{F}
    • Elevated Temperature (Fever): 100.4 ∘F100.4\,^{\circ}\text{F} and up
    • Possible causes for elevation: Infection, physical activity, heat exposure, hot showers, hot drinks, vaccines, or other medical issues.
    • Measurement locations: Oral (mouth), Rectal (rectum), Axillary (armpit), Tympanic (ear), and Temporal (forehead).
    • Control center: The Hypothalamus in the brain acts as the body's thermostat.
  • Vital Sign: Pulse / Heart Rate
    • Equipment: Stethoscope or Manual (located using two fingers).
    • Normal Heart Rate: 60–100 bpm60 \text{--} 100\,\text{bpm}
    • Maximum Heart Rate Formula: 220−age220 - \text{age}
    • Moderate Exercise Heart Rate: 50%–70%50\% \text{--} 70\% of Maximum Heart Rate.
    • Tachycardia: A heart rate that is abnormally fast.
    • Bradycardia: A heart rate that is abnormally slow.
    • Common Arteries for Manual Pulse: Radial and Carotid.
  • Vital Sign: Respiratory Rate
    • Equipment: Stethoscope or Manual (watching the chest rise).
  • Vital Sign: Oxygen Saturation
    • Equipment: Pulse Oximeter
    • Mechanism: Works by shining light through a person's skin (earlobe or fingertip) or nail.
    • Interference factors: Fingernail polish, skin pigmentation, and cold hands can interfere with accuracy.
  • Vital Sign: Blood Pressure
    • Equipment: Sphygmomanometer and Stethoscope.
    • Factors affecting Blood Pressure: 1. Stress, 2. Caffeine, 3. Exercise.
    • Benefits of regular exercise on Blood Pressure: Reduces inflammation, improves blood vessel function, and makes the heart more efficient/stronger.

Medical Tools and Terminology

  • Auscultation: The term meaning listening to the internal sounds of a human or animal body.
  • Stethoscope: Invented by Ren Laennec in France in 18161816.
  • Monaural vs. Binaural: Monaural refers to sound transmitted to one ear; Binaural refers to sound transmitted to two ears.

Circulatory System Components and Function

  • Main Components: Heart, Blood vessels, and Blood.
  • The Heart: A fist-sized organ.
  • Blood Vessel Types:
    • Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart.
    • Veins: Carry blood back to the heart; they contain one-way valves.
    • Capillaries: The smallest vessels in the body.
  • Blood Cell Types and Purposes:
    • 1. Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Carry oxygen and CO2\text{CO}_2 waste.
    • 2. White Blood Cells (WBCs): Protect the body from infection.
    • 3. Platelets: Clotting cells responsible for stopping bleeding at the site of a cut.
  • Blood Type: Type O- is considered the "universal donor" because it can be given to most other blood types.

Cardiac Anatomy and Blood Flow

  • Chambers of the Heart:
    • Right Atrium: Collects deoxygenated blood from the body.
    • Left Atrium: Collects oxygenated blood from the lungs.
    • Left Ventricle: Sends oxygenated blood to the body.
  • Structures to Identify and Memorize:
    • Aorta, Superior Vena Cava, Inferior Vena Cava.
    • Right Atrium, Right Ventricle, Left Atrium, Left Ventricle.
    • Tricuspid Valve, Bicuspid Valve (Mitral Valve).
    • Pulmonary Arteries, Pulmonary Veins, Pulmonary Valve.

Respiratory System Components and Function

  • Inhalation Pathway: Air enters through the mouth and nose. The nasal passage is lined with a mucous membrane and small hairs that filter the air.
  • Trachea (Windpipe): Branches into two primary bronchi.
  • Alveoli: The site where gas exchange occurs in the lungs.
  • Gas Diffusion: Carbon Dioxide (CO2\text{CO}_2) and Oxygen (O2\text{O}_2) diffuse into and out of the blood in the lungs.
  • Diaphragm: The dome-shaped muscle that assists in breathing in and out.
  • Vital Capacity: Defined as the maximum volume of air a person can exhale after a maximum inhalation.
    • Influencing factors: Age, height, sex, physical fitness, respiratory diseases, muscle strength, altitude, and pollution.

Emergency Procedures: CPR

  • Compression Depth: Recommended depth for adults is 2 inches2\,\text{inches}.
  • Purpose: Chest compressions help move blood around the body.
  • Compression-to-Breath Ratio: The correct ratio for adult CPR with two rescuers present is 30:230:2.

Unit 4: Integumentary System

Skin Layers and Composition

  • Necessity to review all layers and specific contents of each layer.
  • Vitamin Synthesis: The skin is responsible for synthesizing Vitamin D.
  • Role of Fat: Adipose tissue (fat) provides insulation and energy storage.
  • Thickness: Recognize locations of the thickest and thinnest skin on the body.

Cells and Substances

  • Melanin and Melanocytes: Melanin is the pigment that provides skin color; melanocytes are the cells that produce it.
  • Keratin and Keratinocytes: Keratin is a protective protein; keratinocytes are the primary cells of the epidermis that produce keratin.
  • Sebum: An oily secretion produced by sebaceous glands to lubricate the skin.

Sensory and Mechanical Structures

  • Receptors: Mechanoreceptors (detect touch/pressure) vs. Thermoreceptors (detect temperature).
  • Arrector Pili: The muscle found in hair follicles (responsible for goosebumps).

Skin Health and Protection

  • Cooling Mechanisms: The body cools itself down through sweating and vasodilation.
  • UV Protection: Protective factors include melanin and external measures like sunscreen.
  • Acne: Understanding the underlying causes of acne.
  • Skin Damage/Cancer Risk: Behaviors under personal control that impact risk include sun exposure habits and use of tanning beds.

Unit 5: Digestive System

System Function and Structure

  • Overall Function: Breakdown of food and nutrient absorption.
  • Muscle Type: Smooth muscle (involuntary) is found throughout the digestive system.
  • Anatomical Order: Must know the structures and the specific order of the digestive tract.
  • Helper (Accessory) Organs: Identifying organs that assist in digestion (e.g., liver, pancreas, gallbladder).

Digestive Processes

  • Peristalsis: The wave-like muscle contractions that move food through the digestive tract.
  • Mechanical vs. Chemical Digestion: Mechanical involves physical breakdown (chewing); chemical involves breakdown via proteins.
  • Enzymes: The specific type of protein responsible for breaking down food.
  • Nutrient Absorption: The major site of nutrient absorption is the small intestine.

Unit 6: Nervous System

Divisions of the Nervous System

  • Central Nervous System (CNS) vs. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): CNS includes the brain and spinal cord; PNS includes the nerves throughout the rest of the body.
  • Autonomic vs. Somatic: Autonomic controls involuntary functions; Somatic controls voluntary movements.

Neural Pathways

  • Motor Neurons vs. Sensory Neurons: Sensory neurons carry signals to the CNS; motor neurons carry signals from the CNS to muscles/effectors.

Unit 7: Immune System

Immune Structures

  • Skin: Acts as the first layer of defense against pathogens.
  • Lymph Nodes: Locations throughout the body where lymph is filtered.
  • Peyer's Patches: Found in the small intestine.
  • Organ Functions:
    • Spleen: Filters blood and manages white blood cells.
    • Adenoids and Tonsils: Trap pathogens entering through the mouth and nose.

Pathogens and Defense

  • Pathogens: List the 4 main types (Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi, Protozoa/Parasites).
  • White Blood Cells (WBCs):
    • Production: Produced in the bone marrow.
    • Function: To fight infections and neutralize pathogens.
  • Vaccines: Understanding the mechanism of how vaccines prepare the immune system.
  • Environmental and Lifestyle Factors: Factors that impact immune system health include diet, sleep, stress, and exercise.