Views on Education

History of Education

• Mass Education and Economic Development

  • Mass education is a feature of modern industrial societies where most of the population experiences formal schooling.

  • Pre-industrial societies did not require formal education as most lived and worked at home.

  • Industrialisation created a need for a literate and numerate workforce.

• Relationship between formal education and the workplace is complex.

• The structure of education reflects ideological beliefs about its purpose and its connections to social institutions.

Functionalism

• Functionalists see society as a system with interconnected institutions, each performing essential functions.

• Key Concepts:

  • Agency of Socialisation:

    • Schools help individuals adopt societal norms and values explicitly (through lessons) and implicitly (through interactions).

  • Role Allocation:

    • Established by the Education Act (1944), classifies students into academic or vocational paths based on the 11+ intelligence test.

  • Tripartite System:

    • Students divided into three types of schools reflecting beliefs about intelligence and economic needs.

Secondary Education - Worldwide Context

• Functional division reflected globally (e.g., academic and vocational tracks in India and Pakistan).

• Separation of academic vs vocational reflects beliefs about two work forms:

  1. Professional careers needing deep knowledge.

  2. Non-professional work needing practical skills.

Durkheim - Education and Division of Labour

• Education teaches essential skills for occupations in a complex industrial society.

• Promotes social solidarity through cooperation among specialists.

• Schools teach both general values and specific skills.

Davis and Moore (1945)

• Suggest that the most capable individuals fill functionally important roles, creating a meritocratic system where education 'sifts and sorts' individuals according to ability.

Criticisms of the Functionalist View

• Tumin (1953) challenges the objective measurement of functional importance, questioning the hierarchical pay structure.

• Claims meritocracy is flawed as wealth enables access to better education.

Marxism

• Bowles and Gintis (1976) - Schooling in Capitalist America

  • Argue that education reproduces social class inequality rather than being meritocratic.

  • Correspondence Principle:

    • Schooling mirrors workplace organization and relationships.

  • Hidden Curriculum:

    • Students learn social values and norms outside formal lessons, preparing them for a compliant workforce.

Bourdieu (1986)

• Claims that meritocracy is a myth and that education perpetuates the dominance of higher social classes through cultural reproduction.

Althusser (1971)

• Schools serve as an ideological state apparatus, molding students to accept hierarchical social structures and their future positions.

Social Mobility in Education

• Definitions:

  1. Inter-generational Mobility: Between generations (parent vs child).

  2. Intra-generational Mobility: Within an individual's lifetime.

• Status in contemporary societies based on achievements (talent and effort) instead of ascribed characteristics.

Inequalities of Outcome

• Developed through testing and examinations; requires objective evaluation and equality of opportunity.

• Modern education systems often reflect 'sponsored mobility': advantages for upper and middle class children due to cultural capital and resources at their disposal.

• Mass Education and Economic DevelopmentMass Education and Economic Development

• Functionalists: View education as a meritocratic bridge between family and economy.

• Marxists: Argue that education reinforces capitalist exploitation and class inequalities.

Education and the Economy

• The New Right perspectives acknowledge the basic relationship outlined by Davis and Moore.

• General agreement exists among New Right thinkers regarding this relationship.

• They argue that the traditional societal structures no longer exist due to rapid changes in the past 40 years resulting from globalisation.

Changes in Society

• Rise of Service Industries: There has been a steady rise in general service industries and computer-based service technologies.

• These industries are predominant in post-industrial society, known for their flexibility and speed of change.

• This transformation questions the existing distinction between academic and vocational education in modern systems.

New Right View

• The New Right asserts that the rigid division between "academic" and "vocational" subjects is inflexible for a globalized economy.

• Long-term decline in manufacturing has been contrasted with the rise of financial and service sectors over the past 50 years.

• The nature of economic production has evolved, necessitating changes in the education system.

Changes in Education

• New Right advocates propose several changes:

  • Breaking down the divisions between academic and vocational subjects.

  • Shifting from a purely knowledge-based curriculum to one focused on functional knowledge and skills, including teamwork and problem-solving abilities.

  • Narrowing distinctions between various knowledge types and skills.

• New Right thinkers argue for a meritocratic schooling system where educational success or failure results from personal choices.

• Saunders (1996) social mobility reflects life choices and asserts that winners and losers in meritocratic societies are determined by individual choices, not class, ethnicity, or gender.

Saunders

• Middle class parents' investment in their children's education, combined with the children's efforts, often leads to higher qualifications.

• While upward mobility isn't guaranteed, such investments typically safeguard against downward mobility.

• The New Right views differences in achievement as a result of individual choices rather than systemic issues.

The New Right (Neo-liberalism)

• Neoliberal ideology has global ramifications, positioning education as crucial for success in a competitive market.

• Emphasis on vocational training has risen, focusing on skills necessary for future jobs.

• Global Education Inc (2012) by Stephen J. Ball highlights global organisations' roles (e.g., World Bank, WTO) in influencing education policies worldwide.

• The New Right favours privatisation of schools over state control, promoting marketisation where parents and children have broad choices.

• Marketisation: Opening the supply and consumption of educational goods and services to competition.

• Neoliberalism considers marketisation essential for raising educational standards, motivating institutions to compete for students' choices.

Problems with Marketisation

Parentocracy

• The term "parentocracy" describes the power parents exert to influence their children's education.

• Marketisation may restrict mobility for lower socioeconomic children whose parents cannot afford alternative educational options.

Cultural Capital

• Intelligent working-class students often lack the economic and cultural capital enjoyed by others, limiting their opportunities in underperforming schools.

• Cultural Capital: Background advantages (e.g., exposure to arts and education, reading) that give individuals a competitive edge.

Criticisms of Neoliberal Perspective

• Competition and choice may not significantly improve standards, with studies indicating only small improvements.

• Market dynamics may lead to selective student admissions, where successful schools attract primarily middle-class students.

• Ranson (1996) criticises market-driven education for promoting self-interest over cooperation and nurturing values.

• The education system is at risk of becoming an "exam factory," prioritising test results over creative and critical thinking.

Social Democratic

• Social democracy emphasises state representation of the population.

• A democratic system is vital for ensuring equality of opportunity, enabling every member to succeed.

• Similar to functionalists, social democrats view education as essential for equality and economic growth.

• They acknowledge societal inequalities that hinder equal educational opportunities.

• This theory, associated with theorists like Emile Durkheim, argues that education serves an essential function in maintaining social order and integrating diverse individuals into society.

• Durkheim asserts that education instills moral values and develops social solidarity by aligning individual interests with those of society.

• Evidence from comparative education studies (e.g., Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) reports) indicates that countries with strong social democratic policies—such as those in Scandinavia—tend to have higher educational outcomes, reduced inequality, and greater levels of social mobility.

• Studies show that initiatives aimed at reducing educational inequality (such as free school meals and funding for disadvantaged schools) can significantly improve academic achievement among lower socioeconomic groups.

Conflict Theory:

• While traditionally critical of education, certain conflict theorists, like Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, can support social democratic perspectives.

• They argue that comprehensive schooling can alleviate social class inequalities by providing equal access to quality education for all classes.

Criticisms of Social Democratic Views

• New Right Perspectives:

  • The New Right critiques social democracy for advocating state control over education and argues that marketisation promotes efficiency and choice, asserting that competition raises standards.

  • Thinkers like Charles Murray argue that state welfare, including education, weakens individual responsibility.

• Postmodernism:

  • Postmodernists, such as Jean-François Lyotard, contest the universality of social democratic theories.

  • They argue that education cannot address the fragmented nature of society and the diverse needs of an increasingly pluralistic population.