Art-Resource-Guide

I. Introduction to Art History

A. Definition of art history as an academic discipline B. Goals of understanding art in historical context C. Relationship with other disciplines (anthropology, history, sociology) D. Overlap with aesthetics and art criticism

II. Methods and Inquiries of Art History

A. Broad definition of "art" 1. Includes fine art, craft, and everyday objects B. Shift in understanding of meaning over time 1. Variability in perspectives based on social status, education, etc. 2. Impact of historical context on interpretation

III. Nature of Art Historical Inquiry

A. Two primary modes of analysis 1. Formal Analysis - Focus on visual qualities of the artwork - Assumes intrinsic meaning in artistic decisions 2. Contextual Analysis - Examines cultural, social, and economic context - Analyzes patronage, viewer access, and historical impacts

IV. Sources, Documents, and the Work of Art Historians

A. Importance of direct examination of artworks 1. Loss of quality in reproductions 2. Reliance on historical records for analysis B. Types of sources used in contextual study 1. Archival documents (letters, commissions) 2. Cross-disciplinary contexts (literature, music, theater) 3. Ethnographic methods and interviews in non-written cultures

V. The Development of Art History

A. Emergence as an academic discipline in the mid-eighteenth century B. Contributions from historical figures 1. Pliny the Elder's "Natural History" 2. Giorgio Vasari's "The Lives of the Artists" C. Evolution towards inclusive perspectives and broader visual culture

was a central aspect of Sumerian life, and the Sumerians built massive temples at the centers of their cities. Less complex platform structures evolved over time into the stepped pyramids called ziggurats. Around 2334 bce, the cities of Sumer came under the rule of Sargon of Akkad. Although the Akkadians spoke a different language from the Sumerians, they assimilated Sumerian culture. With the Akkadian dynasty, loyalty to the city-state was supplanted by loyalty to the king, and consequently the art of this period tends to reflect an emphasis on the monarchy, with Akkadian rulers depicted in freestanding and relief sculptures. Around 2150 bce, Akkadian rule came to an end as the Guti, barbarous mountaineers, invaded and took control. About fifty years later, however, the cities of Sumer were able to reassert control, and a Neo-Sumerian ruler was established as the King of Ur. Perhaps the greatest known works of this era were the ziggurats that were built at the city centers. The ziggurats functioned primarily as temples but also served as administrative and economic centers. stone steleThe next important civilization in Mesopotamia was that of the Babylonians. For centuries Mesopotamia had witnessed the coexistence of several independent citystates, but around 1792 bce, Hammurabi, king of the city-state of Babylonia, was able to centralize power. Hammurabi left an enduring legacy in that he codified Babylonian law—the Code of Hammurabi is the oldest legal code known in its entirety. The best- known artwork from this period, preserved in the Louvre Museum, is related to this code of law; it is a onto which Hammurabi’s code is carved with a sculpture in high relief at the top that depicts Hammurabi receiving inspiration for his code of law from the sun-god, Shamash. While the Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian cultures grew in southern Mesopotamia, the Assyrians dominated in the north. From about 900 bce to around 600 bce, the Assyrians were the most powerful civilization in the Near East. Among the most notable of Assyrian artworks are relief carvings, which often depict battles, sieges, hunts, and other important events. Throughout the seventh century bce, the Assyrian hold on power weakened, and from c. 612– 538 bce, Babylonia once again became the dominant force in the region. It was during this Neo-Babylonian period that the famous hanging gardens of Babylon were constructed. Another important construction at this time was the gateway to the great ziggurat of the temple of Bel, called the Ishtar Gate, which is considered one of the greatest works of architecture in which figures—in this case animal figures—are superimposed on a walled surface. Persian Art The Persian Empire (c. 538 bce–330 bce) flourished in what is present-day Iran. The Persians were notable for their impressive architectural achievements, the most

The 4,100-year-old Great Ziggurat of Ur, near Nasiriyah, Iraq.

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important of which was the palace at Persepolis, which was constructed of stone, brick, and wood and reflects the influence of Egyptian architecture. Ancient Egyptian Art Ancient Egyptian civilization is generally dated from c. 3000 bce, following the predynastic period, through 332 bce, when Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great. Recognizable works include the great monuments of ancient Egypt: the Sphinx, the great pyramids at Giza, the larger-than-life-sized statues of the pharaohs, and the portrait head of Queen Nefertiti. Palette of King NarmerMuch Egyptian art emphasizes a style called hierarchical scale, which uses the status of figures or objects to determine their relative sizes within an artwork. Hierarchical scale is exemplified in the , a relic from the Old Kingdom. This slab of stone, which may have been used as a ceremonial palette for mixing cosmetics, presents King Narmer centrally, and he is depicted as being considerably larger than the other figures. In the main image on the palette, Narmer is seen holding the hair of a fallen enemy, with his arm raised in preparation for delivering a deathblow. In the lowest section of the palette, below the king and his enemy, are two smaller figures of defeated enemies. The organization of the figures, their relative sizes, and their poses recurred in most of the ancient Egyptian art that followed. Figures are presented so that each part of the body is shown as clearly as possible, in a technique known as “fractional representation.” The head is in profile with the eye in frontal view, the torso is in full frontal view, and the lower body, legs, and feet are in profile. This formula became a standard style that endured for centuries as the typical way of representing people in Egyptian art. We know a great deal about the art of Egypt because excellent conditions for preservation were present in much of Egypt. In addition, the burial customs of the Egyptians, which decreed mummification and entombment with lavish furnishings, symbolic servants, and jewelry, resulted in rich stores of objects and images. The most famous of the Egyptian tombs is that of the boy king, Tutankhamun. By the twentieth century, most of the ancient Egyptian tombs of the Pharaohs had been broken into and robbed of the materials inside. However, Tutankhamun’s tomb, because it was cleverly hidden, remained almost completely intact until 1922. When it was opened, the excavators found a treasure-trove of objects, all superbly made of rich materials. Among the most famous of the objects is Tutankhamun’s burial mask. This mask, found in the innermost layer of the king’s sarcophagus, rested on the mummy’s face and shoulders. It is made of gold and is decorated with blue glass and semiprecious stones. The mask presents an idealized portrait of the young king. Nubian Art The kingdom of Nubia lay to the south of Egypt and covered a large area of Africa. As contemporary historians become increasingly interested in revising and expanding art history, more knowledge about this great African civilization is being uncovered. Indeed, it is now known that there was a period in the history of Egypt when Nubia ruled the area, and the Pharaohs of that era were Nubian. While there are few collections that feature Nubian works, this may well soon change as revisions to the story of art continue.

Burial mask of King Tutankhamun.

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Greek and Roman Art Cycladic, Minoan, and Mycenaean Art The Aegean island cultures were very important as precursors of the Greeks in terms of art production. Three major cultures flourished on the islands in the Aegean Sea, on Crete, and along the Aegean coast. The earliest of these cultures, the Cycladic culture, flourished from about 3200 to 2000 bce in the Cyclades, a group of islands in the Aegean. Archaeologists still have many unanswered questions about Cycladic culture, but the simplified, geometric nude female figures from this area are highly appealing to modern sensibilities. In addition to these sculptures, the Cycladic culture produced decorated pieces of pottery as well as marble bowls and jars. Eventually, the Cycladic culture was supplanted by the Minoan culture, which developed on the island of Crete and reached its pinnacle in the second millennium bce. The Minoan culture centered around the city of Knossos on Crete, where the legend of the Minotaur— the creature believed to be half man and half bull who devoured those who entered his maze—is supposed to have taken place. The maze was actually the royal palace, a sprawling complex that has since been excavated. The art of these island people depicts sea life and includes statues of a female snake goddess. The Minoans created artworks that were characterized by a naturalistic pictorial style. Their paintings took two major forms: frescoes painted on palace walls and pottery designs. The architectural achievements of the Minoans were also impressive, as they built four major palaces, all completely unfortified and designed in a light, flexible, and organic style. The collapse of the Minoan civilization coincided with the pinnacle of Mycenaean culture, and as a result, many historians believe the Minoans were destroyed by the Mycenaeans. The Mycenaean culture was centered around the city of Mycenae on the Greek mainland. The Mycenaeans built elaborate tombs, and their burial practices allowed for a large number of objects to be preserved. The objects that are best known are made of gold and show astonishing levels of mastery in goldsmithing. Additionally, the Mycenaeans demonstrated much skill in their use of relief sculpture. Ancient Greek Art From around 660 to 475 bce, during the Archaic Period, the Greeks, influenced by the stone sculptures of Egypt and Mesopotamia, created sculptures carved in marble and limestone. These freestanding figures borrowed the frontal pose used in Egyptian art, but were more dynamic and placed greater emphasis on depicting realistic human features. Temples were also built during this time period using columns in the early Doric and Ionic decorative styles. Vase painting was another notable art form and was done in many different styles. Some vases portrayed black silhouetted figures, while those in the Corinthian style set figures against a floral, ornamented background. Athenian-style vases used black figures, but were more linear and larger in scale. Red-figure vases, with red figures standing out against a black background, were also common. The best-known ancient Greek art is that from the city-state of Athens from the Classical Period. During the Early Classical Period, temples were typically built with sturdy, Doric columns. Unfortunately, much of the sculpture from this period has not survived, but luckily Roman copies have provided us with a good deal of information on these ancient works. The sculpture of the Early Classical Period was characterized by its solemnity, strength, and simplicity of form and most often focused on a figure or scene either in the moment before or the moment after an important action. Significant advances were made in sculptural techniques, as the stiff frontal postures of the Archaic Period were largely abandoned in favor of more complex and life-like figures and positions. Greek statuary evolved from a stiff, frontal presentation like that of the Egyptians to an increasingly natural- looking figure. A pose called “contrapposto,” or counter positioning, was invented to show the body to its best advantage. In contrapposto, the standing figure is posed with its weight shifted onto one leg, for a more relaxed, naturalistic appearance. Greek sculpture set the model for thousands of years in Western art, and the Renaissance, Baroque, and Neoclassical artists of the fifteenth through early nineteenth centuries aspired to equal the perfection displayed by the surviving Greek statues. ParthenonThe Middle Classical Period witnessed important advances in architecture as is evident in the temples of this time period. The temple called the , restored in 447 bce after being destroyed by the Persians in 480 bce, is one of the most admired works of all ages, and the use of columns as exemplified in the Parthenon has been a principal feature of Western

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architecture for more than two thousand years. Venus de MiloLaocoön GroupArchitecture declined during the Late Classical Period as Athens was defeated in the Peloponnesian War. Temples in this era were still built using simple Doric columns, but the use of highly decorative Corinthian columns became more and more popular. The Hellenstic Period saw an increasing influence from Eastern civilizations as Greek styles blended with those of Asia Minor. Notable works of this time period include freestanding sculptures such as the and the , which are masterworks designed to present ideals of beauty. Etruscan Art The art of the Etruscan civilization is seen as a transition from the ideals of Greece to the pragmatic concerns of the Romans. Etruscan civilization arose in what is now Italy in the first millennium bce. Like other cultures we have examined, this one is known largely from the arts of tomb decoration. Nothing remains of Etruscan buildings as these were constructed of brick and wood. However, ceramic models depict temples with tiled, gabled roofs supported by columns in the fashion of the Greeks. Extant Etruscan artifacts also include sarcophagus lids and other art forms made of baked clay, as well as objects that display the Etruscans’ talent in bronze work. The only paintings that remain from the Etruscan culture are those found on the walls and ceilings of tombs. These were done in bright, flat colors, and they show figures playing music and dancing as part of funeral celebrations. Roman Art The story of Rome is one of conquest and empire building. Early Roman art reflected the influence of Etruscan art. However, by the second century bce many Roman sculptures and other Roman artworks were variations of Greek works, and the standards for idealized presentations of Roman rulers were based on those of the Greeks. The Romans, however, made pioneering advancements in architecture and engineering. The Roman discovery of the equivalent of modern concrete was a major contribution to architecture, as it enabled Roman builders to fill the spaces between their stone walls with rocks and rubble bound together by the concrete mixture. With this strong material, the Romans were able to construct huge domed buildings. They also pioneered the use of the curved arch, using this form to build bridges and aqueducts. These structures were part of a paved

Diagram of Greek and Roman Orders. Classical Greek and Roman columns consist of a base, shaft, capital, and an entablature. Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders are differentiated by their degree of ornamentation.

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ColosseumPantheonroad system, making communication and control very effective in the Empire. Two buildings that can still be seen in Rome, the (72–80 ce) and the (c. 126 –128 ce), remain as monuments to the engineering genius of the Romans. The Romans created numerous sculptures. Often, colossal triumphal arches would be topped with relief sculptures portraying Roman emperors or Roman military victories. The Romans also created relief sculptures for funerary purposes. Tombs and sarcophagi were decorated with reliefs. Some of these reliefs were simply decorative, but many others had narrative subject matter. The Romans also sculpted portraits, which ranged in size from tiny busts to huge statues. During the Roman Republic it became common for members of a funeral procession to carry small carved images of the deceased family member. Later, statues in memory of great statesmen or other noble figures were erected in public areas. Both the funerary sculptures and the public statues did not present naturalistic depictions of their subjects. Rather, the Romans favored an idealistic style that highlighted Roman ideals. The art of the Romans not only had a tremendous influence on the art of the Middle Ages, but also had a notable impact on the art of the Renaissance and much of the art that followed.

period and the developing concept of artistic genius. Modern art history was strongly influenced by eighteenth-century Enlightenment philosophy. Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–68) was a German scholar who shifted away from Vasari’s biographical emphasis to a rigorous study of stylistic development as related to historical context. Through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, art historians continued to develop approaches that placed increasing emphasis on an understanding of the interrelationship between the formal qualities of a work of art and its context. When considering contemporary views of art history as well as perspectives on art history from the past, it is important to keep in mind that all histories are individual stories and thus will inevitably reflect certain biases. More recently, art history has been revised, particularly by feminist historians, who have noted that the traditional version of art history has largely focused on white men, whether as artists or as patrons. As a result of such revisions, art history has expanded its scope in recent years and has become a field that is broader, more international, more multicultural, and more inclusive than in the past, often involving Marxist, feminist, and psychoanalytic methods and viewpoints. Moreover, the concern with great artistic geniuses and masterpieces has lessened as the full range of “visual culture,” ranging from advertisement posters to film to photography and television imagery, has come to view.