04 the agricultural revolution of the 18th centuryAGRICULTURAL INNOVATIONSFallow method (some land was left uncultivated to allow the soil to regenerate) ❌Continuous crop rotation with species such as legumes ✔️Continuous crop introduced crops that replenished the soil even though the field wasn’t left fallow and thatcould be used as food for livestock.Many products from the Americas were grown (tomatoes, potatoes and corn)Shoeing of draft horses ✔️In British countryside, productivity of the land also continued increasing thanks to the mechanisation ofagricultural work (iron ploughs, seed drills and new harvesting techniques). There were also decisive changesin laws that changed the distribution of land ownership among social classes. Between 1760 and 1840 commonland for communal use was gradually enclosed by British parliament, and became privately owned.Agricultural Revolution had many consequences like an increase in the population, which stimulated industrialdevelopment.05 parliamentarianism and enlightened despotism1. ABSOLUTISM AND PARLIAMENTARIANISM18th century marks the beginning of the Contemporary Age. From a political point of view, absolutemonarchies and parliamentary monarchies, which were political models ended between the first years of thecentury and its final decadesABSOLUTE MONARCHIESSupported the superiority of the king’s power over all others (nobility, clergy, guilds...) It included a growingcentralization of political and administrative decisions, like a permanent army, royal treasury able to raiserevenueLOUIS XIV• He was known as the Sun King• Most representative example of an absolute monarchyPARLIAMENTARY MONARCHIESDeveloped institutional and legal systems that controlled the monarch’s power through court and parliaments.England was the main example. After the Glorious Revolution in 1688 where the absolutist claims of the

Stuart dynasty were defeated, parliament chose Mary II and her husband William III of Orange as the newmonarchs. They signed the Bill of Rights, which recognized the rights of the individual.PARLIAMENTARY REPUBLICAN POLITICAL SYSTEMSRemained in some parts of Europe. They were governed by members of the nobility and wealthy middle classelected by local assemblies.Republics were common in the Holy Empire and on Italian Peninsula. The inhabitants enjoyed individualfreedoms. They didn’t make up large states, they were weak against military power of the great monarchies.The exception was the United Provinces2. ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISMVariant of absolutism that incorporated ‘trickledown’ reforms. These reforms didn’t decrease the absolutepower of monarchsThis was implemented in various European countries since the middle of the 18th century. Important thinkersworked as government advisers or minister under absolutist monarchs in France, Prussia, Spain and Russia.Monarchs thought that Enlightenment ideas of universal progress and happiness would help them govern moreefficiently and legitimize their power. Sciences and arts were therefore promoted in the courts of Europe’smonarchs.ADDITIONAL REFORMSEconomic reforms: Its aim was to increase income from the royal estate. Improvements in communicationroutes, agriculture, crafts and commerce were introduced, and manual workers were taught skills.Political reforms: Parliaments or courts were no longer convened; the provincial government was alsoreorganised to strengthen the territorial power of the kings.Regalist reforms: Within political reforms, regalists had their own entity. They were designed to gainprivileges within the Church, like the appointment of high positions (bishops, abbots, tax exemptions enjoyedby the clergy)Monarchs who represented enlightened despotism were Louis XV of France, Frederick II of Prussia, CatherineII of Russia, Christian VII of Denmark, Gustav III of Sweden and Joseph II of Austria.GALLICANISMInterference of royal power in ecclesiastical matters