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~ Putting Out System

• foundation to the factory system that emerged during the Industrial Revolution, especially prevalent in the textile industry.

  • merchants or entrepreneurs would provide raw materials such as wool, cotton, or flax to rural workers, who would then process these materials in their own homes. 

• This decentralized method of production allowed workers the flexibility to work at their own pace and maintain agricultural jobs as needed

~ Agricultural Revolution

• It began in the early 1700s and radically transformed the British farm sector

• British farmers produced more food and used less labor after Britain established bigger commercial farms

  • Allowed more rural laborers to take jobs in the new factories

  • British workers spent less money on food

~earliest industries

• 1. TEXTILE 

  • most significant sector in early industrialization.

  •  spinning jenny (invented by James Hargreaves in 1764), the water frame (developed by Richard Arkwright), and the power loom (designed by Edmund Cartwright) revolutionized the production of textiles

  • Cottage industry was lost from textile industries

• 2. IRON & STEEL

  •  Great role in the early industrial age, essential for constructing machinery, railways, and infrastructure. 

  • railroads in the 19th century was heavily reliant on steel for the construction of tracks, which created faster transport of goods and people, contributing to economic growth and urbanization. 

    • Steel was also crucial for building bridges, factories, and skyscrapers, leading to an architectural revolution that reshaped urban cities.3. COAL

      • mining was increasingly important as the demand for coal increased due to its use in steam engines and heating. 

        • This marked a significant shift in economic structures and labor practices, setting the stage for further industrial advancements and urbanization.

    
    

    ~urbanization

    • refers to the increasing population of people living in urban areas, which traditionally consists of cities and towns. 

      • This shift often results from factors such as industrialization, which creates job opportunities, the search for better living standards, and the desire for improved access to services such as education, healthcare, and infrastructure. 

        • Urbanization can lead to economic growth, but it also presents challenges such as overcrowding, increased cost of living, pollution, and strains on resources and infrastructure.

    ~laissez faire

    • economic philosophy of free-market capitalism that opposes government intervention in economic affairs. 

      • The term is French for "let do" or "let it be," showing the idea that economic success is best achieved when businesses operate without heavy governmental control.

    ~Crystal Palace

    • architectural marvel built for the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London.the structure was notable for its innovative use of iron and glass, demonstrating the technological advancements of the Industrial Revolution. 

      • It showcased over 14,000 exhibits from various industries around the world, including machinery, textiles, and decorative arts.

    • aimed to celebrate the achievements of the industrial age and promote international trade and cultural exchange. 

      • attracted tons of visitors during its five months of operation, highlighting the public's fascination with industrial progress.

    ~ Steam Engine

    • James Watt invented the steam engine in 1769

    • The steam engines purpose was to pump water out of Scottish coal mines

    • Robert Fulton created the first steamboat in 1807 and called it the Claremont

      • Steamboats opened up new rivers that were impossible to travel before the steamboat

      • Expansion of colonization efforts in Africa and Asia

    • In 1829, George Stephenson invented a steam engine powered railroad named Rocket and won a cash prize in a competition

      • Railroad was used to transport goods and transport people faster than before

      • Greenwich Mean time was created

      • Railroads transported farm produce to markets fast which changed people's diets and people were able to each fresh food everyday“Rain, Steam, Speed” by JMW Turner 

      ~Luddites

      • In the 1820s, workers became angry about the new machines in the factories and created a campaign of violence

      • These workers thought that the new machines would take over their jobs

        • Workers smashed machines in their factories to get the attention of the business classes and politicians

      • Luddites were punished, but their efforts led to improvements of working conditions

      ~ Population Growth

      • Was significant, driven by several factors including improved agricultural practices and advancements in healthcare. 

        • agricultural Revolution led to increased food production, which supported larger populations. 

          • a decline in mortality rates due to better sanitation, hygiene, and medical advancements, leading to a population boom in urban areas.

      • As people migrated from rural areas to cities in search of jobs in factories, the population density in urban centers surged. 

        • urbanization trend was connected with industrial growth, as cities became centers of economic activity. 

          • rapid population growth also brought challenges, such as overcrowding, inadequate housing, and increased strain on natural resources.

      ~ view of women at the time

      • viewed through traditional domestic rolesexpectation was that women should focus on home and family, displaying to the so-called "cult of domesticity" which showed women's responsibilities as wives and mothers.

        • limited to household duties, and they had minimal rights in both legal and economic areas. 

        • women's work in industries, when required, was often not congratulated and poorly compensated. 

          • idea of women's involvement in public life or politics was largely resisted, leading to movements advocating for their rights and roles beyond domestic boundaries.

          • “On the Subjugation of Women by Mill”

        • “Vindication of  the Rights of Women by Wollstonecraft” 

      ~ Most/Least industrialized nations in 1800s

      • 1. GB (GREAT BRITIAN)

        • Leader of the industrial revolution w/ advancements in textile. Manufacturing, steam power, and iron production

      • 2. GERMANY

        • Experienced industrial growth layer in the century, in coal and steel production

      • 3. FRANCE

        • Also had industrial growth, but slower than GB, devoplements in textiles and machinery 

      • 4. RUSSIA

        • Slow industrialization process, mostly agricultural, focused on serfdom until late 19th 

      • 5. OTTOMAN EMPIREStruggled with the industrial revolution due to internal country conflicts and the competition from European powers (AUSTRIAN EMPIRE/HABSBURGS)

      ~ relationship between working class and religion

      • Relationship was complex

        • tension between the working class and established religions, particularly as industrialization progressed. 

          • Many workers viewed churches as aligned with the interests of the bourgeoisie and the status quo, potentially stifling calls for social reform and justice. 

          • created an environment where labor movements began to distance themselves from traditional religious influences, and instead secular approaches to address their struggles for rights.

      ~cult of domesticity

      • value system in the 19th century that supported the role of women as the guardians of the home and family. 

        • This suggested that women's responsibilities were to create a home environment, uphold morality, and raise children. 

          • Women were expected to possess virtues such as purity, domesticity, and submissiveness, which removed their roles to domestic duties 

          • This norm reinforced the idea that women should focus on family life and discouraged them working/government rights

      ~ protection of workers

• Gained prominence during industrial rev as a complaint against dangerous factory conditions like long hours, low wages, and unsafe working environments 

  • Child labor laws: prevented the exploitation of children working in factories 

  • Mine Acts: limited the hours of workers in mine to prevent diseases from the mines 

  • Factory Acts: limited hours of children and women working in factories 

~political power at the time in Europe

• political power was characterized by a struggle between different ideologies, including conservatism, liberalism, and emerging socialist movements. 

• After the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna aimed to restore stability and establish a balance of power among the Great Powers: Austria, France, Great Britain, Russia, and Prussia.

  • Conservatism: Emphasized maintaining traditional authority and social structures, being against rapid changes brought by revolutions. 

    • Key figures Metternich of Austria played a great role in promoting conservative policies.

  • Liberalism: was as a reaction against conservatism, liberalism favored political reforms, individual rights, and limited government intervention.

    • John Stuart Mill, argued for personal freedoms and equal rights. 

   Socialism: a collective or governmental ownership of the means of production and the distribution of goods. Also advocated for the rights and protections of workers. 

• Figures like Karl Marx called for revolutionary changes to overthrow capitalist systems.

~ Congress of Vienna and Concert of Europe

• Congress of Vienna

  • The Great Powers(Austria, France, GB, Russia, and Prussia) met in Austria's capital to restore European order after Napoleon's defeat

  • Prince Metternich, Austrian Foreign Minister, was dedicated to to restoration and legitimacy and was the most forceful personality in the Congress

  • Great Powers established a new balance-of-power

• Concert of Europe

  • Britain had different ideas than the rest of the great powers (Austria, France, Prussia and Russia)

  • Austria, France, Prussia and Russia created the Troppau Protcol that pledged military assistance to crush revolutions that threaten European government

    • British strongly opposed to this protocol because they thought that this went against the balance-of-power

~Conservatism 

• Emerged as an ideology in the early years of the French Revolution

• Conservatism was inspired by the writings of Edmund Burke

  • Edmund Burke argued in favor of maintaining traditional authority, structure of society and strong religious presence

• Conservatives favor slow, careful reforms instead of rapid changes

~ Von Metternich

• Austrian diplomat and statesman 

  • As the Austrian Minister, he was the most influential at the Congress of Vienna, where he restored stability and order Europe to maintain a balance of power among the Great Powers (Austria, France, Great Britain, Russia, and Prussia). 

  • Metternich was a conservative, advocating for the preservation of traditional authority, social structures, and a strong religious presence, promoting slow and careful reforms in contrast to rapid political changes.

~Edmund Burke

• Irish statesman and philosopher and father of modern conservatism. 

  • argued in favor of maintaining traditional authority and social structures, emphasizing the importance of reform rather than rapid change (similar to Metternich) 

  • Burke's writings criticized the French Revolution 

    • “Reflections on the Revolution in France by Burke”

~Revolutions of 1848

• FRANCE: sparked by discontent with King Louis-Philippe's conservative rule

  •  led to his abdication and the establishment of the French Second Republic. 

    • However, this republic was short-lived, and Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in a coup, establishing the Second Empire.

    AUSTRIAN EMPIRE: erupted in Vienna, Prague, Budapest, and other cities within the Empire. 

    • movements demanded autonomy for various ethnic groups (Czechs, Hungarians, Italians, etc.). 

• While Emperor Ferdinand I was forced to abdicate, the Austrian Empire ultimately suppressed the uprisings with the help of Russia. 

• The revolutions did lead to some limited reforms, but the empire largely maintained its power.

• GERMAN STATES: Inspired by France, uprisings occurred in various German states. 

  • The Frankfurt Parliament (Diet of Frankfurt) tried to unify Germany, but it  failed due to internal divisions and the opposition. 

  • While the revolutions didn't immediately unify Germany, they did contribute to the growing sense of German nationalism.

• ITALIAN STATES: Nationalist and liberal uprisings took place in several Italian states.

  • revolutions sought to unify Italy and establish a more liberal government. 

  • While they were ultimately suppressed by Austrian and French forces, they laid the foundation for the eventual unification of Italy later on

~Eduard Bernstein

• important figure in the history of socialism. 

  • was a German social democratic theorist and politician, and he's known for his "revision" of Marxist theory.

• Challenged Marx: Bernstein argued that some of Marx's ideas about capitalism were wrong. 

  • He didn't believe that capitalism would collapse, and he thought that socialism could be achieved gradually through reforms, not just through revolution.

• Controversial Figure: Bernstein's revisionism was controversial among Marxists. Some saw him as a traitor to the cause, while others saw him as a thinker who adapted socialist ideas to the realities of his time.

~Karl Marx

• German philosopher, economist, and sociologist: 

  • he was a brilliant thinker who developed a complex theory about society, history, and economics.

  • believed that history is driven by economic forces and the struggle between different classes over the means of production (e.g., land, factories).

  • argued that capitalism is exploitative, creating inequality. He believed it would be replaced by communism.

• Co-author of "The Communist Manifesto":  

  • written with Friedrich Engels in 1848, laid out the basic principles of Marxism and called for a working-class revolution

~Communist Manifesto

•  It's one of the most influential political documents ever written by Engels and Marx

  • argues that the history of society is the history of class struggles. 

  • It's against capitalism, and contains internal contradictions that will lead to its overthrow by the proletariat.

~Liberalism

• Liberalism emerged as an ideology in the beginning of the French Revolution

• Most liberals were members of the urban educated middle classes

• Viewed conservatism as hostile to political reforms that could give a voice in society

• Liberals favored individuality, freedom and economic freedom for business

• Political Liberalism is a branch of liberalism

• Political Liberals favored reforms that protected individual rights and suffrage for educated, property owners

• Rousseau and Montesquieu inspired liberalism 

  • Liberals were also inspired by the Declaration of the Rights on Man and Citizen and the US Bill of rights because they expressed freedom and liberty

• Political Liberals believed that the government is important, but should have a limited role. Liberals feared abuse of government power

  • Government should protect personal liberty

  • Government should preserve law and order

  • Government should encourage the growth of trade and business

  • Liberals favored a constitutional monarchy and feared republics because they thought they were unstable and radical

• “On Liberty” by John Stuart Mill

  • Argues for maximum personal freedom and minimal government

  • Greatest expression of Liberalism

  • “The government that governs least, governs best”

• “On the Subjugation of Women” by John Stuart Mill

  • John Stuart Mill supported equal rights for men and women

  • Argued that society would not be free if half the population did not have the same rights as the other half

• Economic Liberalism

• Economic Liberals gained their ideas from Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations

• Favroed a limited government like the Political Liberals

• Wanted government to enforce business contracts, preserve society stability, and build infrastructure to facilitate the movement of goods

• Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo were great classical liberal economists

  • “Wealth of Nations” by Adam Smith

  • “Principles of Population” by Thomas Malthus

  • “Political Economy and Taxation by David Ricardo

~English Chartists

• The Chartists were a significant working-class movement in Britain during the 19th century.

  • driven by the frustration and hardship faced by the proletariat people in the rise of the Industrial Revolution.

    • Movement's name came from the People’s Charter 

  • Although the Chartists didn't achieve all their demands immediately, their movement paved the way for later reforms that expanded voting rights and made the political system more democratic.

~Utopian Socialists

• They were called "utopian" because they believed in the possibility of creating ideal societies based on socialist principles.

  • Robert Owen was a key example who was one of them 

~Socialism

An economic theory that supports the state’s control of the major resources and businesses in society. 

• Socialists believe that the state can ensure that all benefit equally from economic activity.

~ role of education during IR

• rise of factories and industries created a demand for workers with basic literacy and numeracy skills. 

  • led to the establishment of mass education systems to train workers for the new industrial economy.

• Despite the growth of education, child labor remained prevalent, with many children working in factories instead of attending school