psych unit 4
Motivation
The driving forces behind one’s choices, behaviors, and thought patterns.
Biological, social, cognitive, and emotional.
We can’t survive without social interaction.
We overthink our decisions and think about how better the other option may be, so we enjoy out current decision less.
Maslaw’s Hierarchy of Needs:
Biological → Food, water, medication
Safety → Shelter, security
Social → belonging
Self-worth → loving yourself
Self actualization
Theories of motivation:
Instinct theory → We are born with instinctual drives to follow.
Weak since it only focused on biological, did not consider anything else.
Drive reduction theory → Motivated to maintain homeostasis.
Meets the need of something
Biologically sound
Need → drive → behavior → homeostasis
Why would anyone do anything that throws their body off balance?
Cortical arousal theory → Motivated to maintain homeostasis.
Brain based (level of cortical arousal)
Low → ADHD brain, you need something to stimulate your brain more.
High → More chill people, or people trying to calm down.
Incentive theory → Rewards and punishments motivate behavior.
Expectancy → What you expect to happen.
Value → How much I actually care.
Want to earn a reward or want to avoid a punishment.
We do things based on expected consequences.
Opponent process theory → explains maladaptive behavior.
Every action has a reaction.
If the reaction is something we like, we are driven to continue the preceding action.
Problem = sometimes the reaction isn’t as good as the first time.
Cognitive Motivation:
Approach-Approach → Choice between two attractive options.
Avoidance-Avoidance → Choice between two unattractive options.
Approach-Avoidance → Choice made regarding one thing that has both attractive and unattractive aspects.
Emotional motivation:
Sternbergs theory of love:
If all 3 aspects go together, you have a soulmate.
Passionate → You have the hot’s for someone.
You can maintain this for 9.5 weeks.
Commitment → We’re in this for the long run.
Intimacy → Being able to connect with someone and genuinely like them.
Can be your best friend if passionate and commitment don’t work.
Passionate & Commitment (Fatuous) → Loving someone, wanting sex and to be with them forever.
Can be very dangerous because since there’s that ownership factor, some people may want to kill themselves without their mate.
Narcissistic abuse and gaslighting.
Intimacy & Commitment (Companionate) → You will love someone forever and love them a lot.
No sex, but you want this person in your life forever.
Passionate & Intimacy (Romantic) → I love you a lot, I want you.
Tends to not last forever.
Lee’s Styles of love: Similar to sternberg but emphasized individuality rather than one common goal.
Eros → erotic/passionate love.
No commitment whatsoever.
Ludus → “game playing” motivated love.
Trying to win a relationship.
Mania → possessive love.
Fatuate.
Storge → Friendly love
Pragma → Practical love. It makes sense.
Arranged marriages. Trashed on by the US.
Agape → unconditional love.
Attachment theory:
Hazon and Shaver: Based adult relationships on attachment formed with caregivers as babies.
Types of attachment:
Secure → Tend to seek out securely attached partner, healthy secure relationship.
Insecure
Anxious/Ambivalent → Did not care about connection with caregiver/indifferent.
Difficulty connecting with others as adults.
Anxious/Avoidant → Refused to detach from caregiver.
Untrusting, co-dependent, insecure and overly anxious when separated from partner.
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
Teresa Amabile (pinball study)
Intrinsic → Motivated by internal forces/desires to do something because you love it.
Extrinsic → Motivated by external forces/rewards - what you get out of it.
Child Development
Studying why we do what we do and think what we think as a function of what period or stage of life we are currently at.
Pregnancy:
External and internal environmental factors that can impact your life:
Teratogens → Anything detrimental to development of a baby in utero.
Trimester 1 → 1-12 weeks/Neural tube
Most dangerous because of naivety and its the development of important parts.
Trimester 2 → 13-27 weeks /Motor activity
Trimester 3 → 28-40 weeks or birth.
Apgar test → Performed at birth.
Tests to see if your baby is able to survive.
Reflexes:
Rooting → Touching cheeks to see if baby can look for food.
Sucking → Sugar on hand to see if baby and suck enough to get milk from the mother.
Swallowing → Make sure your baby isn’t breathing while swallowing.
Moro (startle) → slightly dropping the baby so they flail as a natural instinct for fear.
Grasp → trigger sensation at palm to see if they will grab with their hand.
Babinski → grasping with toes.
Stepping → pressure at feet to see if they will walk.
Benchmarks: (PSYCH DEVELOPMENT)
Ability to hold chin/head up (1-2 months)
Ability to hold upper body (3-4 months)
Ability to sit with support (4-6 months)
Ability to sit without support (7-8 months)
Mobility - crawling and scooching (9 months)
Walking (10 months - 1 year)
Cognitive Development - Piaget
Assimilation → Using skills we already have and applying it to new concepts.
Accommodation → Learning a new skill and applying it to perform a new task.
Stage 1: Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
Existence of something = able to sense it.
Skill needed: Object permanence. (noting something exists without it being there.
Stage 2: Pre-operational (2-7 years)
Objects we can’t sense now exist.
Thinking one-dimensionally.
Skill needed: conservation (properties of substances, their shape can differ but be the same amount).
Use language to represent objects.
Stage 3: Concrete operations (7-11 years)
Start using logic (if i do this… then this will happen).
Very literal
Skill needed: abstract reasoning.
Stage 4: Formal operations (12+ years)
Increase in logic and deductive reasoning.
Comprehension of hypothetical or abstract scenarios.
Adolescent and Adult Development
Moral Development
Kohlbergian Theory
What would you do and why?
Moral dilemma:
Mr. Heinz has a terminally ill wife. There’s an accessible drug through a genius alchemist, but it costs $10000, and Heinz can’t afford it.
The alchemist leaves Heinz by himself, does he steal the drug or not?
The what if’s are endless. Kohlberg wants to see where you stand on a chart.
Stage 1: Pre-Conventional (self)
1. Fear of punishment → I don’t want to go to jail.
Obedience/Punishment
2. What do I get? → I want my life to live.
Self-interest, greatest benefit for oneself.
Stage 2: Conventional (others)
3. What will others think?
Conformity and interpersonal accord.
Wanting approval and acceptance from others.
4. What will society think?
Authority and social order.
Maintaining social order.
Stage 3: Post-Conventional (principle)
5. Laws are good… BUT!
Social contract.
Morally right and legally right aren’t always the same.
6. Golden rule → treat others the way you want to be treated.
Very difficult to get to.
Universal principles.
Based on principles that transcend mutual benefit.
Life Crises
Erik Erikson
Each stage of development comes with a crisis… the outcome will have a significant impact on the rest of your life.
Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust.
Can I trust the people around me or will they screw me over?
Toddlerhood: Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt.
If you do everything for your child, they will eventually feel shame and doubt that they won’t be able to do anything by themselves.
Preschool Age: Initiative vs. guilt.
Kids will make their own decision, but something their first bad choices will lead them to not wanting to make decisions on their own.
School age: Industry (competence) vs. inferiority.
You have an ability to do things or you feel like you can’t do something.
Adolescence: Identity vs. role confusion.
Who am I? What makes me special?
Tough when you’re a people pleaser because this leads to different personalities for different groups.
Young adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Feeling like you have a sense of belongingness.
Middle age: Generality vs. Stagnation
Are you doing something with your life, or are you stuck?
Old age: Integrity vs. Despair
Can I look back and be proud of who I was as a person?
Parenting Styles
Diana Baumrind
1. Authoritarian → all about control and power.
Children need to listen to you.
Outcomes → bullies, submissives, rebels.
2. Permissive
Indulgent → Buying your kid anything they want.
Spoiled brats.
Neglectful → parents not caring about their kids, and aren’t aware of them.
Rebels, don’t know what to do, independent, impulsive.
3. Authoritative → mutual respect (gentle parenting)
We need to foster our kids and help them out of respect.
Gender development is influenced by internal and external factors. There will always be external factors that affect gender identity.
Personality
The way an individual perceives themselves within the world, as well as the way in which others perceive you.
Gordon Allport
Identified many terms to describe an individual.
Unique traits organized into 3 main groups
Secondary → Surface level
Depends on characteristics.
Central → Characteristics you think define you best.
Cardinal → Characteristics that influence your decisions.
Only one trait that arches over everything.
Raymond Cattell
A continuum of 16 main personality traits.
Like the tomodachi life traits.
The Big 5
Biological model → Personality is based on genetics (nature).
Heritability
Mapped out on your DNA at conception.
Sociocultural Model → What is outside of us (nurture).
Environmental factors. Upbringings/culture.
Epigenetics → an environmental factor that can turn/activate a gene later in life.
Cognitive Model → Thoughts (Rotter → Locus of control)
High internal LOC → You have control of your life.
High external LOC → fate, things have been decided for you.
Learning/Behavioral Model → Rewards and punishments.
Radicals → We change personality if we change rewards and punishments.
Moderates → Patterns of behaviors - once rewarded - is internalized.
Psychodynamic Model → The unconscious mind. 3 Components.
ID → We are born with. Pleasure, seeking pleasure. If it feels good, do it.
Superego → What you should and shouldn’t do - consequences and morality.
Ego → Finding a way to make both ID and superego happy. For balance.
Freuds Defense Mechanisms:
Denial → Reality isn’t reality.
Strongest and scariest.
Displacement → Redirecting emotions from a dangerous target to a safer one.
Letting anger out on a family member rather than a boss.
Projection → Externalizing internal anxiety onto someone else.
Rationalization → Justifying unacceptable behaviors with logical reasons to avoid shame.
A student fails a test and blames it on their professor.
Reaction Formation → Hiding and unsettling impulse by acting out its exact opposite.
Having a crush on someone, so you act mean to them.
Regression → Retreating to an earlier stage of development when faced with extreme stress and anxiety.
Adult temper tantrums.
Repression → The mind blocks distressing thoughts from entering conscious awareness.
Repressing the memory of childbirth so a woman chooses to have more babies.
Sublimation → Socially unacceptable impulses are transformed into socially acceptable ones.
Someone with some anger may play sports to be able to let that anger out.
Psychosexual Stage Theory
Stage 1: Oral (0-2 years)
Core concept: Trust and relationships.
Pleasure center: Mouth.
Task: Wean from breastfeeding and the appropriate time.
Fixation:
Early → Oral expulsive (too soon)
Late → Oral retentive (too late)
Behaviors:
OE: biting, swearing, spitting, expelling things out of the mouth.
OR: Sucking, overeating, placing things in mouth.
Personality traits:
OE: untrusting, very independent.
OR: clingy, overly dependent.
Stage 2: Anal (2-3 years)
Core concept: Personal control.
Pleasure center: Anus, relief associated with bowel movements.
Task: Potty training at the appropriate time.
Fixation:
Early → Anal retentive (too soon)
Late → Anal expulsive (too late)
Behaviors:
AR: overly neat/organized, attention to detail.
AE: sloppy, impulsive, unorganized, no attention to detail.
Personality traits:
AR: Obsessive, timely, overly responsible, controlling, ocd.
AE: irresponsible, lax with rules.
Stage 3: Phallic (3-6 years) MALE
Core concept: Gender Identity, detach from mom, act like a man.
Pleasure center: Penis
Task: Identify with father figure, bury impulses directed towards mom.
Fixation: Oedipal Complex
Acting more like their mothers more.
Behaviors: Effeminate behaviors.
Personality traits: Insecurity, overly sensitive, low confidence.
Stage 3: Phallic (3-6 years) FEMALE
Core concept: Gender Identity.
Pleasure center: Clitoris
Task: Identify with mom, but keep father on a proverbial.
Fixation:Elektra Complex/Penis envy.
Behaviors: Tom-boy behaviors.
Personality traits: over-confident, aggressive.
Stage 4: Latent (7-11 years)
Core concept: Social relationship development
Pleasure center: none.
Task: engage in same-gender social friendships.
Fixation: none
Behaviors: isolation, separation.
Personality traits: social awkwardness or isolation, social adjustment issues.
Stage 5: Genital (puberty to death)
Core concept: Sexual orientation development, intimacy.
Task: Engage in successful intercourse.
Male: This meant development an erection and orgasm.
Female: being able to without pain/discomfort.
Fixation: sexual deviance
Behaviors: fetishes, deviant sexual behaviors outside of what was perceived to be normal.
Personality traits: distant/dysfunctional intimate relationships and perverse desires.
Neo-Freudians
Alder
Desire to be superior.
Feeling inferior would lead to inferiority complex.
Horney
Agreed with Freud mostly other than phallic stage.
Not penis envy but instead mean have womb envy.
They do not have the power to create life.
Jung
Personality comes from some historical humanitarian memory we all share.