hist 304 exam dec 19th

Week 2 (September 3 & 5)

2. Division of the World

• Issues with the Soviet-American WW2 alliance: the Soviets understood it as a coalition and the Americans thought it was an alliance. Stalin and Roosevelt. Stalin didn't believe that the capitalist world could cooperate; he feared collective security would not be functional. Stalin was invited to join the League of Nations but refused due to this uncertainty concerning the collective security dilemma. 

  • This shows Stalin's distrust and misunderstanding of America cause skepticism; he wanted to secure hegemonic power so he would not have a fear the US.

• 1945: Poland, Turkey, Iran, and the Role of the Atomic Bomb. Poland was devastated by the Second World War, and the Soviets wanted to keep the occupation, while the US wanted to avoid a communist government forming in Poland. Stalin was able to hold occupation and then create a communist government in Poland. This violated an agreement done two months earlier concerning the Soviets, US, and British. Iran was of British colonialism, but the Soviets wanted to continue the occupation. The Soviets continue their occupation of Iran despite agreeing to withdraw. The US shows force concerning Iran, and the Soviets back off; this becomes a major step in disagreement in the coalition.

  • What does this reveal about the Cold War? 

• Nagasaki and Hiroshima have been debated in IR. There is an argument that the us dropped the bombs to intimidate the soviets and was unnecessary as Japan 1945 was ready to surrender. Both the US and Soviets were developing A bombs and keeping it secret from the other. 

  • Stalin felt threatened, as he was not informed about plans for Hiroshima and Nagasaki, but there is not hard evidence that this was the tactic of the US.

• Deterioration of the relationship between the US and the Soviets after the end of WW2. Kennans Long telegram, was a response to a speech given by Stalin months earlier, where Stalin said that they must make sacrifices to fight capitalism, etc. Kennan responds by explaining that the Soviets are unable to cooperate, which has been a historical pattern; unless they become dominant in IR, he calls Stalin to action by saying he should create economic sufficiency to help people back to their feet rather than focus on military development. 

  • This was a foundational telegram for IR, at the beginning of the Cold War, it portrayed the Soviets as aggressive and the US within a savior complex. It would later influence the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. 

• In 1947, Greece experienced an economic crisis; and the US gave them aid, which influenced them to create the Marshall Plan. The Americans are becoming more assertive, which puts Stalin on the defensive. George C. Marshall created the idea for provide funds to Europe to create a functioning economy and tackle mass poverty. The Americans would transfer resources for Europe to rebuild. 

  • The soviets understood this as a tactic for the Americans to gain power in Europe and get close to their borders. He is on the defensive and fears that his security will be impeded by the Marshall Plan 

• Berlin is destroyed after the war, it becomes occupied by four different sects: the US, the Soviets, the British, and the French. In 1961, a wall is built that divided Germany into East and West. Stalin planned on creating a communist Germany, so he created the East Germany The Communist Party and the US created a democracy in West Germany. 

  • Stalin was sure East Germany would outperform the West because he thought capitalists could never cooperate. He was wrong in thinking this and east Germany struggled economically. 

3. Early Cold War, 1949-1956

• The Chinese Civil War ended in 1948. The US let China slip into the communist sphere, as they thought it would become a burden on the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union did a nuclear test in August 1949; this was perceived by the US as a threat to the Truman administration.

  • This influenced the US containment policy, which was proposed by Kennan, the idea was that they needed to defend strong points in IR like Germany to stop the spread of communism. The US did not want to start an arms race, as they thought it would help the Soviets economically. 

• The Korean War started in 1945 and ended in 1950. The US occupied Korea after the Second World War, but the Koreans thought they were strong enough to be independent. They saw the US as neocolonial. The Soviets are also present in Korea during this time. Korea is divided into nationalist communists and non-communist nationalists. North Korea (Communists) asks the Soviets for support in fighting for their independence. At first, Stalin says no, the Soviet economy is collapsing, and they are focused on MAO in China. MAO is involved because Korea shares a border with him, he wants the Americans gone from Asia, so MAO decides to join North Korea to help remove the American troops from Korea. In 1951, negotiations begin, and the war goes on and is devastating. 

  • The Korean War was the first time the Cold War was globalized. The Truman administration took a hard line in Korea because of their containment policy. Japan allies itself with South Korea; the US uses Japan as a military base. 

• Stalin passed away in 1953, and a process of de-stalinization began. Most Eastern European leaders realized that Stalin created a dysfunctional structure and wanted change. They move their economies away from military to civilian production economies. In 1953 there is an uprising in Berlin, due to shared grievances over economic crisis. Austria split between America, Soviets, British and English in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty 1955, a “small brother of Germany”. Austria would become independant in 1965 with all allies withdrawing. Krushchev takes over for Stalin in 1956. 

  • The Soviet Union is scared, they are worried about poland and Hungary leaving the Soviet Union, as well as East German uprisings causing turmoil. It is an IR sign of weakness. 

Mandatory Readings: Lüthi chapter 2-4 (start reading) & Reader (03 Westad chapters 1-2) 

Luthi Chapter 1: This text analyzes the Cold War's origins, tracing its roots to the unresolved power dynamics following World War II. It highlights the conflicting visions of a post-imperial world held by the US, USSR, and UK, emphasizing the role of ideological clashes, unilateral decisions, and misperceptions in escalating tensions. The text examines the shifting global landscape, including the decline of British imperialism, the rise of the US as a global power, and the Soviet Union's initially revolutionary, then pragmatic, foreign policy. Key events like the Korean War and the Suez Crisis are presented as pivotal moments that solidified the Cold War's structure through the formation of alliances and the intensification of the arms race. Ultimately, the narrative demonstrates how a complex interplay of power struggles, ideological differences, and miscalculations shaped the geopolitical realities of the Cold War era.

Luthi Chapter 2-4 intro: This excerpt introduces a book analyzing the post-World War II global landscape, focusing on the shifting power dynamics among the "Big Three"—the UK, USSR, and USA. It highlights how each nation initially held a sphere of influence (the Arab League, Socialist Camp, and Free World, respectively), but these spheres experienced internal fracturing and the gradual decline of British power after the Suez Crisis of 1956. The text argues that the inability of these spheres to maintain internal cohesion, coupled with the rise of a US-Soviet superpower duopoly, fundamentally reshaped the global order, creating opportunities for smaller nations to influence the Cold War's trajectory. Ultimately, the excerpt sets the stage for a detailed examination of these evolving power structures and their impact on the Cold War's eventual end.

Westad 01: This excerpt examines the contradictions within American foreign policy during the Cold War. It highlights the dissonance between the U.S.'s self-proclaimed commitment to democracy and freedom, both domestically and internationally, and its actual interventions, often supporting authoritarian regimes to counter communism. Key figures like Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. criticized this hypocrisy, arguing that the U.S. government was the world's greatest purveyor of violence. The text further explores how the Cold War framework shaped U.S. foreign policy, justifying interventions wherever communism was perceived as a threat, ultimately overshadowing any genuine commitment to promoting democracy abroad.

Westad 2: This excerpt analyzes the foreign policy of the Soviet Union during the Cold War, contrasting its ideological underpinnings with that of the United States. Both superpowers, the text argues, viewed themselves as universalist actors driven by ideological goals rather than national interests, leading to frequent interventions. The passage highlights the persistent tension between these superpower ambitions for global ideological dominance and the principle of state sovereignty, suggesting an inherent incompatibility despite superficial alliances and international organizations. Ultimately, the excerpt explores how the Soviet Union's belief in inevitable socialist triumph shaped its interventions and its attempts to foster revolution globally.

Week 3 (September 10 & 12)

4. From Crisis to Crisis, 1956-1968

• Poland crisis 1956: They agreed not to leave the Soviet Union; Khrushchev feared they would and tried to intervene in their elections to ensure that Gomulka would not get into power. 

• Hungary 1956: Imre Nagy was a reformer who wanted change in Hungary, the Soviets resented him and wanted Matyas Rakosi to win the election to preserve Hungary as a communist. Demonstrations in Budapest in support of the Polish people against communist rule, caused the Soviets to send troops into Hungary. Nagy is eventually put back into power to end demonstrations, but there are too many demands, and he cannot make all of the concessions. Eventually, the Soviets withdrew from Hungary. There is a second intervention in late 1956; this was a brutal intervention where many were executed and arrested. This is the end of the Hungary revolution, and a new leader, Janos Kadar, takes over and works closely with the Soviets to replace Imre Nagy.

  • Soviets realize that Poland and Hungary are sipping away. So they made an agreement that they could be autonomous on their territory if they stayed within the Soviet sphere. 

• The Suez Canal Crisis 1956: Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, meaning that the French and British would no longer profit from it. The French and British plan a military attack on Egypt without the knowledge of the Americans, which creates resentment on the American side. The Americans get the French and British to back off as long as Egypt pay back foreign investors, and Nasser complies. The British and French made an alliance with Israel for military strategic reasons, as it is across the canal from Egypt. 

  • Khrushchev responded to the Hungary and Suez crisis by saying that the Americans are imperialists and that retreating from Hungary gave the imperialists (US, Brit, fr) more power and exposed their weakness. He fears the US will perceive this weakness and go on the offensive. This is why the second intervention occurs in Hungary. 

• The Cold War in Berlin: The Communist regime in East Germany was unpopular, so this led to Soviet intervention similar to the one in Hungary in 1956. Over a million East Germans fled to West Germany, meaning the population was decreasing, and this is mostly because of the economic situation. Walter Ulbricht becomes the leader of east Germany and pushes for salinization. He gave an empty threat concerning West Germany to try and force concessions from the Americans in negotiations. In 1961, to tackle the refugee problem in East Germany, they built a wall dividing Germany, claiming it was to fix their economy.

  • This shows the evident instability of the Soviet Union; they were losing power in Poland, Hungary, and now East Germany and have failing economies all around. People are dissatisfied living under Communism while capitalist West Germany is thriving and living well. 

• Early Cold War, there is a collapse of cooperation in the socialist world. There is the Soviet-Romanian estrangement in the 1960s (they become independent but is part of the Warsaw pact), the Soviet-Albanian split 1961+ (Albania switched to China rather than the Soviet Union), the Sino-Soviet split from 1958 to 1966 and in 1969 (Mao thinks hes the tru leader). This is because of a disagreement over ideology. Marxism-Leninism, it depends how you interpret the truth and the ideology itself; this causes disagreement; there is disunity within the socialist world. The Soviet-Yugoslavia conflict is the start of nonunion in the Soviet Union. Mao also believes that Khrushchev is not the true leader of the communist revolution and that he is the true leader. In 1958, Mao publicly went against Khrushchev and said that the revolution was being transferred from Moscow to Beijing. 

  • Disunity in the Socialist sphere, and this creates a fear for the soviet union. They crack down on socialist countries through military occupation. 

• Cuba sides with the Soviets in the 1960s, they became part of the socialist sphere. 

  • This is a threat to the us, as socialism is growing closer to their territory. 

• US deployment of nuclear missiles to Europe 1958-1963: US in response of the Suez Crisis put short missiles in Europe, so in retaliation, the Soviets placed missiles in Cuba. This led to the missile crisis in 1963. 

  • The missile crisis, according to the understanding of the Americans, is based on negotiation in Berlin, and as psychological warfare. They believed that the Soviets were looking to get concessions in Berlin by using their Cuban missiles as leverage. The Cold War came very close in this moment to becoming violent. Kennedy was a strongman in this situation, he would not be pushed around by the Soviets, this led to Khrushchev withdrawing from Cuba. This was humiliating for the Soviet Union, and MAO exploited this embarrassment and tried to secure himself as the true leader of the socialist revolution. This crisis also forced the US and Soviet Union to come to a nuclear arms reduction. 

• Czechoslovakia experiences a radical reform in the late 1940s and early 1950s. They did not want to dismantle socialism but reform it, this is where Czech differs from Poland and Hungary. This lead to the Prague Spring, the Soviet Union had brought a military occupation in 1968 as they felt threatened that Cezh would leave the Socialist sphere. 

  • Military intervention in the socialist sphere becomes a pattern of fear and disunity. At this point, the soviet military intervened in Berlin, and Budapest, where it was brutal repression. The Prague Spring was over because of the brutal repression. 

• The Brezhnev Doctrine 1968: the Soivets secured their right to intervene in socialist states when they thought socialists were in danger. 

  • The consequences of this were that the Soviet Union can implement stability but at huge costs; it created a disincentive of anyone to produce resistance as they feared the Soviets; and it created a philosophy that they must solely survive under the regime. China also fears socialist intervention and attitudes toward the Soviet Union changed. 

• In 1968 Romanian leader Ceausescu denounced Soviet intervention in Czech, this speech marked the peak of his career. He claims that it was illegal because Czech is a sovereign state and he publicly stands up to the soviets.

  • This is a bad look for the Soviets; this act of betrayal of the Romanians shows once again the dissatisfaction with the Soviets under the socialist camp and the disunity. It seems like the Soviets are acting out of fear of losing any power, as they are internally insecure; they need their ideological camp to stay as large as possible. 

5. China

• Chinese Civil War: Dismantled the Qing dynasty, then the nationalist party used force in 1926 for the creation of a new government. In 1927 a civil war began between the nationalist government and the communist party, which was created by the Soviets. This is where MAO emerged as a leader of the communist party. Relations between the Chinese communists and the Soviets began.

• Chinese Civil War and the Cold War 1944-49: Japanese occupation of China after the Second World War, Stalin mediates this to stop fighting. There is internal conflict in China, and the Cold War begins to gather steam after 1945, which worsens tensions for China. At this point, Stalin was not interested in transporting communism into asia, they were more focused on their own internal struggles (Poland, Hungary, Czech, Berlin, and economic struggles of the post-war climate). MAO however, was able to get concessions with Stalin concerning Manchuria and gain control over the territory. In 1945, Roosevelt helped China get Japan off their territory and end Japanese occupation. 

  • Mao had no understanding of the outside world; he was only concerned with China and had a sinocentralist view. A lot was happening at the time, but MAO had 0 understanding of this and thought that everyone was concerned with China. 

• Second Chinese civil war, between the non-communists and the communists led by MAO. The Chinese communists at first are not supported by the SOviets but later Stalin changes his alliance to side with Mao. The Chinese Communists win the civil war, in this context, the US allowed China to slip under the communist regime to weaken Soviet economics. Mao realizes he could only get economic aid from the Soviets, and Stalin started to reconsider his foreign policy because of the Yugoslavia split happening simultaneously. 

• Sino-Soviet alliance 1950+: Mao declares the establishment of the People's Republic of china PRC, it it heavily anti-imperialist and communist in 1949. Mao is invited to Moscow for Stalin's anniversary and the publication of Sino-Soviet relations. Stalin wanted concessions in Manchuria. In 1950, Mao and Stalin signed a treaty together; this welcomes aid to China from the Soviet Union. Mao believes that all loans should be forgiven for China after Stalin dies, as he claims he should not pay to continue to revolution. When Khrushchev comes into power, Mao doesn't believe he is the true leader of the revolution and resents him. In 1958, Khrushchev went to Beijing. 

  • Americans and Europe saw China as a puppet state for the Soviets. Mao wanted to leave the socialist sphere but could not because they needed economic aid, there is a large famine, people were starting to question Mao, and he wanted to be able to blame the Soviets for any issues. 

• Isolation 1963+: Mao thinks Khrushchev is a true Leninist or Marxist, but that he is. He starts to isolate himself from the Soviet Union and claims he is the leader of the revolution in particular in the global south and that the Soviets are traitors. Many didn't like this idea. Mao launches a cultural revolution. 

  • Context, this is happening during the start of the Vietnam War... Mao needed hlep from the Americans for support. 

• The cultural revolution started in 1966 led by MAO, the culture referring to how one lives and intracts. People are frustrated about the future, so Mao encourages a revolt for a proletariat revolution. China at this point is fully isolated in IR.

• Sino-American Rapprochement 1969-1972: In 1972, Nixon visited Beijing. Why did this happen? On the American side, the anti-communist ideology kind of fell off after the Vietnam War, and the US needed a fresh start in Asia. Nixon's idea was to engage with China to dampen radicalization and saw the potential of China and wanted to benefit from it. On the Chinese side, Mao had a border conflict and wanted to lead China out of isolation as they had a weak military. Earlier in 1970, Edgar Snow was invited by the PRC for a celebratory parade; this was the signal to the US by Mao for future relations. China eventually wants to join the UN with a permanent seat. 

  • This is the start of Sino-American relations but they truly flourished in 1979. 

Mandatory Readings: Lüthi chapters 5 & Reader (05 Chen) 

Luthi 5: This excerpt from "china.pdf" traces the People's Republic of China's (PRC) tumultuous journey from its 1949 establishment to the early 1970s. It details the CCP's victory over the Guomindang (GMD), highlighting the interplay of skillful leadership, fortuitous circumstances, and the GMD's weaknesses. The text analyzes the PRC's initial ideological struggle between revolutionary goals and pragmatic adaptation to the global order, demonstrated through its complex relationships with the Soviet Union and the United States. The narrative follows the PRC's evolving foreign policy, swinging between assertive internationalism and a pursuit of peaceful coexistence, culminating in its admission to the United Nations in 1971 and the subsequent shift toward a more pragmatic, status-quo power role. The author emphasizes the internal debates within the CCP, contrasting Mao's radicalism with Zhou Enlai's pragmatism, and illustrating how these internal conflicts shaped the PRC's foreign policy trajectory.

Chen 05: This excerpt from Jian Chen's Mao's China and the Cold War analyzes the complex relationship between China and the Soviet Union from 1949 to the mid-1960s. The central argument posits that Mao Zedong's continuous revolution, aiming to fundamentally transform Chinese society and its international standing, fundamentally shaped China's alliance policy with the Soviet Union. The text traces the alliance's development, highlighting Mao's "lean-to-one-side" approach born from both ideological alignment and security concerns, particularly regarding the US. The Korean War serves as a crucial case study, revealing both the alliance's utility and the burgeoning tensions between Mao and Stalin due to perceived Soviet pragmatism and unequal partnership. The text further explores the post-Stalin era, marked by continuing tensions stemming from de-Stalinization, differing views on international communism, and ultimately culminating in a complete breakdown of the alliance driven by Mao's increasingly nationalistic and revolutionary agenda and his distrust of Soviet intentions.

Week 4 (September 17 & 19)

6. Vietnam

• 5 Vietnam wars, big one (Cold War one…) 1973-75. 

7. South Asia

• Before the end of WWII, South Asia was an advocate for independence and were anti-colonial, as they were colonized by the British. In 1947, there is a partition between the Southern Asian region. The British could not afford thei colonies, and this less to the independence of South Asia, India. The first election held, the Muslim League won and claimed that they would create a safe space for all Muslims. Congress and Ghani were against this use of religion in government. They feared that this partition would weaken South Asia and feared leading the government this way would lead to partition. Riots break out across the region. This situation was concerned with decolonization, not the Cold War itself. Kashmir was majority Muslim and wanted independence, or to join India. When the king realizes he cannot get independence, he opps for joining Inida, and Pakistan retaliates by occupying the Area, which leads to a war where both Pakastani and Indian troops are stationed on Kashmir. 

• Kashmir territorial conflict between Pakistan and China 1947, leads to cold war military alliances influence by patterns of war. India planned on being non-alignment, following Nehrus non-alignment dating back to 1939. 

  • This is how the Cold War entered into South Asia 

• Context of the Korean War: NATO and the Geneva conference, attempted to stop the spread of communism, and trying to create alliances with Middle East, east Asia, Greece and Turkey to surround Communist territory

• Friendship not alliance between Nehru and Khrushchev and India gets vacuumed into the cold war. 

• Tibet in Sino-Indian relations: In 1950, China entered Tibet because of Buddhist religious ties. In 1959, the Tibet rebellion begins, Nehru becomes frustrated by this as it is a burden to Indian-Chinese relations. MAO starst claiming that India is truly imperialist. Eventually a compromised agreement is met. 

• East Pakistan Crisis: dispute between east and south pakistan. 1958, a dictatorship in South begins and they station troops in east to stop rebel movements. An election was set for 1971, but the South canceled it as the East Pakistan Nationalists won. CHina supported East Pakistan, India was unsure of what to do. AT this same time, India signs a security treaty with the Soviets, which was not a military allinace. This allows for India to emergr as a major power in East Asia, and Pakistan is dropped by the AMericans. 

  • This is the wake of the Vietnam War, where Pakistan would support North Vietnam as they became anti-american. India becomes isolated and internal instability pursues. 

• Nehru is eventually pushed out of the soviet sphere, and pakistan out of american sphere. 

Lüthi chapters 6: This excerpt analyzes the Vietnamese communist revolution from its origins in the 1920s to its culmination in the unification of Vietnam in 1975. It details the interwoven motivations of national liberation, communist ideology, and regional hegemony driving the Vietnamese communists' actions. The text traces the evolving relationship between the Vietnamese communists and external powers like France, China, the Soviet Union, and the United States, highlighting key turning points such as the Geneva Accords of 1954 and the Paris Peace Accords of 1973. Ultimately, the excerpt argues that the Vietnamese communists' relentless pursuit of reunification, even at the cost of significant human suffering, and their ambition for regional dominance shaped the Indochina Wars and significantly impacted the Cold War landscape.

Luthi 7: This excerpt analyzes India's foreign policy and its tumultuous relationship with its neighbors, Pakistan and China, from independence in 1947 to the mid-1970s. It traces the evolution of Jawaharlal Nehru's initially successful non-aligned approach, which fostered India's image as a moral world leader, but ultimately failed due to unresolved border disputes and escalating conflicts with both Pakistan and China. The text highlights how these conflicts, particularly the 1962 Sino-Indian War, forced subsequent leaders to abandon Nehru's ideals, leading to increased militarization and a decline in India's international standing. Ultimately, the narrative culminates in Indira Gandhi's decision to conduct a nuclear test, a departure from Nehru's pacifism, as a means to bolster India's global prestige, showcasing the complex interplay between domestic politics, regional rivalries, and Cold War dynamics in shaping India's trajectory.

Week 5 (September 24 & 26)

8. Middle East, 1945-1964

9. Middle East, 1964-1974

Mandatory Readings: 

Lüthi chapters 8: This excerpt analyzes Arab-Israeli relations from 1948 to 1964, focusing on the interplay between the Zionist project, Arab nationalism, and Cold War dynamics. It frames the creation of Israel as a settler-colonial venture fueled by European anti-Semitism and propelled by global diplomacy, highlighting the conflicting strategic interests of Israel and Egypt, particularly concerning the Suez Canal and Palestinian refugees. The text details the 1948 war, emphasizing the Zionist military strategy and the resulting Palestinian displacement (Nakba). Subsequently, it examines the ambiguous truce of 1949-55, marked by Arab boycotts, Cold War maneuvering, and the failed Alpha Plan for peace. The Suez Crisis of 1956 is analyzed as a pivotal event highlighting the entanglement of regional and global conflicts, with the US and USSR ultimately cooperating to resolve the immediate crisis while underlying tensions persisted. Finally, it discusses the relatively calmer period of 1957-64, characterized by intra-Arab conflicts, Israel's pursuit of nuclear capabilities, and the growing US-Israeli partnership, setting the stage for future conflicts.

 Luthi 9: This excerpt analyzes Arab-Israeli relations from 1964 to 1975, focusing on the interplay between regional conflicts and the Cold War. It details the escalating tensions leading to the Six-Day War in 1967, highlighting Syria's radicalization, Egypt's shifting alliances, and Israel's expansionist policies. The aftermath, marked by the War of Attrition and UN resolutions like 242, is examined, showing how superpower involvement shaped the stalemate. Finally, the text culminates in the Yom Kippur War of 1973, emphasizing Egypt's strategic shift away from the Soviet Union and towards a more independent approach to peace negotiations with the United States, ultimately leading to a new phase in the conflict.

The Arab-Israeli conflict is a complex issue with roots that predate the Cold War, but which was significantly shaped by it. Here’s a breakdown of the conflict, drawing from the provided sources:

Origins and Early Conflict:

• The conflict arose from the Zionist movement's goal of creating a Jewish state in Palestine, a region with an existing Arab population. This was seen by Arabs as a settler-colonial venture.

• The persecution of Jews in Europe, culminating in the Holocaust, added a sense of urgency to the Zionist project.

• Local resistance to the Zionist project began in the late Ottoman period.

• The Arab League was formed in 1945, partly as a response to the Zionist movement, and saw itself as the guardian of Palestinians.

• The UN proposed a partition plan in 1947, dividing Palestine into Jewish and Arab states, which was supported by both the US and the USSR.

• The 1948-49 War resulted in the displacement of over 750,000 Palestinians, an event known as the Nakba (the catastrophe).

• After the war, the state of Israel was founded.

• The Arab states refused to negotiate directly with Israel, leading to armistice agreements mediated by the UN.

• Israel and Egypt had conflicting strategic interests. Israel wanted to break Egypt’s naval blockade of the Suez Canal and the Strait of Tiran, while Egypt wanted a land bridge across Israel’s Negev Desert to reunite the Arab world.

The Cold War's Influence:

• While the US and the USSR initially agreed on the partition of Palestine and recognized Israel, they became wary of the new state. The US feared Israel would turn communist, while the Soviet Union distrusted Israel for not doing so.

• The Cold War created an environment where both superpowers sought influence in the Middle East, and supported opposing sides in the Arab-Israeli conflict.

• The US formed a strategic partnership with Israel, partly due to Cold War fears about Soviet expansionism in the Middle East.

• The Soviet Union, in turn, supported some Arab states, leading to an arms race in the region.

• The Suez Crisis of 1956 was a key moment, where the US and the USSR both opposed the Anglo-French-Israeli intervention. This event highlighted how the Cold War could sometimes put the superpowers on the same side in regional conflicts.

• The 1967 June War further solidified the Cold War divide in the region, with the US and its allies generally backing Israel, while the Soviet bloc sided with the Arab states.

• After the June War, the Soviet Union supported Arab demands for Israeli withdrawal from occupied territories and offered economic assistance to Egypt.

• The US, while calling for a comprehensive solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict, also supported the idea that Israeli withdrawal should depend on a prior peace agreement.

• The 1973 October War saw the US and the Soviet Union backing opposing belligerents, and the conflict brought the superpowers close to a direct clash. This event also undermined the reliability of the US as a partner in Moscow's eyes.

• The war also led to an oil embargo by Arab states, which further complicated the situation.

Key Issues and Developments:

• The issue of Palestinian refugees and their right of return was a central point of contention.

• Both sides were unwilling to make concessions, leading to a series of conflicts and diplomatic impasses.

• The Arab League played a significant role in coordinating Arab positions against Israel.

• The creation of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1964 was an attempt to unify Palestinian efforts.

• The 1967 War resulted in Israeli occupation of the Sinai Peninsula, the Golan Heights, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.

• Resolution 242 of the UN Security Council called for Israeli withdrawal from occupied territories, but its vague language led to continued disputes.

• The 1967 war also created a sense of urgency among Arab states, who felt the need to increase their military capabilities.

• After the 1973 war, the US became more involved in trying to bring about a settlement, but the initiative for peace shifted back to regional actors.

• Egypt's President Anwar Sadat's trip to Jerusalem in 1977 marked a major shift in the conflict, leading to a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel in 1979.

The Broader Context:

• The Arab-Israeli conflict was intertwined with other regional conflicts and power struggles.

• Pan-Arabism and the rise of political Islam also played a role in shaping the conflict.

• The Non-Aligned Movement attempted to offer an alternative to the Cold War, but had limited success in resolving the Arab-Israeli conflict.

In Summary:

The Arab-Israeli conflict was a complex issue with roots in competing national claims and historical grievances. The Cold War intensified the conflict by creating a framework where the superpowers supported opposing sides, but it did not create the conflict. The conflict also became an arena for the broader ideological struggle between capitalism and communism, which impacted international relations and led to increased instability in the region. The conflict saw periods of intense fighting and diplomatic efforts, but the underlying issues have continued to fuel the conflict into the present day.

Week 6 (October 1 & 3)

10. Asian-African Movement and Non-Alignment 

Asian-African Movement: Led by Nehru, first conferences discussed economic development, womens issues, citizenry, decolonization, lack of ressources. Call to action for Indoneasian independence. A push for decolonization brought to the UN in late 1940s. 

• Context: same time as South Asian partition which was violent. Geneva conference in 54, Nehru is unhappy with the agreements, which leads to the their AAM conference. French occupation on North Africa, and threatens to leave the Un which would destabilize the entire system. 

• Bandung Conference 1955: Call for world peace. China as a large topic of discussion. 

• Non-Alignement: TITO, NASSER AND NEHRU AS LEADERS. Agreement to not side witht he US or Soviets in the cold war. Their first conference 1961 was to bring states together to commit to disarmament and world peace. Conversations of nuckear testing dominated the conference. The second conference in 1964 was utlized by Nasser to try and gain support, and nehru has passed, ideas overlap with socialism 

  • Suez Crisis, tito feared that Nasser would become radical in the cold war context and invited him to join the non-alignement. The first conference was in the wake of the Berlin Crisis. 

• The Non-alignement was not truly non-aligned, Yugoslavia was in the warsaw pact, and the soviet are backing egypt. The movement also incudes african countries and war begins between members which is where they lost credibility. 

• Non-aligned is an idea that predates the cokd war, of not havcing alliances, it becomes relevant in the wake of the Korean war, us is tryong to globalize their alliances, Nehru pushes non-alignement where he rlly commits, 

• Used to rise the voice of the third world, it really becoemes impritant because of Chinas 1960 revoltuionary policies, 

• Asian-African movement is an anti-imperialist movement, it loses its viability as most of states get their independence by 1960s before china tries to seize it for its own revolution 

• Integration of china into wprld and away from soviet union, and then it is china that destroys the africna-asian movement 

• Both movements rely on charismatic leaderships 

• 
  

• Nehru is larger than life, runs the show, non-aligned lives off the fact that tito and nassers personality, they look great, they can mobilize, Nehru dies, Nasser dies, tito aging and then dies too, constant things happen in the world, all of these conflicts have an impact on the cold war

11. Islam and the Cold War

Mandatory Readings: 

Lüthi 11: This text analyzes the rise and fall of Asian-African Internationalism, a movement primarily defined by the 1955 Bandung Conference. The movement's origins trace back to pre-World War II Asian internationalism and evolved through various stages, including the 1947 Asian Relations Conference and the Arab-Asian bloc within the UN. While initially conceived as an alternative to Western-dominated international systems, it aimed to promote decolonization, economic development, and peace in the Global South. However, internal divisions, particularly along Cold War lines and between Asian and African nations, ultimately led to its demise by the mid-1960s, with its functions being absorbed by other organizations such as the Non-Aligned Movement and UNCTAD. The text highlights the complexities of navigating competing ideologies and national interests within the movement, ultimately concluding that geographical proximity was insufficient to overcome these deep-seated divisions.

Luthi 12: This text analyzes the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), a Cold War phenomenon originating from the independent foreign policies of Yugoslavia, Egypt, and India. It details the complex origins of the NAM, emphasizing the initially ambiguous nature of its founding, despite the popular "Brioni myth." The text highlights the crucial distinctions between NAM and the overlapping, yet ultimately rival, Asian-African Internationalism, showcasing how ideological and geopolitical differences led to internal divisions within NAM. The evolution of NAM is traced through key events and conferences, revealing its fluctuating relationship with both the Soviet and American blocs, ultimately concluding with its decline due to internal conflicts, the pursuit of national interests by its leading members, and the rise of other pan-national movements. The narrative emphasizes the pivotal roles of Nehru, Tito, and Nasser, alongside the changing dynamics of the Cold War and decolonization in shaping the movement's trajectory.

Luthi 13: This excerpt analyzes the diverse manifestations of pan-Islamism during the Cold War, focusing on the competing initiatives of Pakistan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Iran. The collapse of the Ottoman Caliphate created an identity crisis within the Muslim world, sparking various movements aiming to unite the ummah (global Muslim community) under different forms of leadership and ideology. These movements, whether governmental or grassroots, shared certain goals like establishing a central authority and defining common enemies, sometimes advocating jihad. However, they significantly differed in their approaches, stemming from varied political contexts, sectarian affiliations (Sunni vs. Shia), and Cold War alliances. The text highlights the contrasting strategies of these nations—Pakistan’s initial focus on leadership, Egypt's struggle between secular rule and the Muslim Brotherhood, Saudi Arabia's conservative Wahhabist pan-Islamism leveraging its oil wealth, and Iran's initially internal, later globally influential Shia revolutionary movement—and their ultimate successes and failures in achieving pan-Islamic unity.

Week 7 (October 8 & 10)

12. Nuclear Weapons and Space Race

Mandatory Readings: 

Reader (12 Holloway): This excerpt analyzes the inextricable link between nuclear weapons and the escalation of the Cold War from 1945 to 1962. It explores how the development and use of atomic bombs, initially driven by World War II anxieties, fundamentally reshaped the geopolitical landscape, fostering a dangerous arms race between the US and the Soviet Union. The text examines key events, including the Korean War and the Cuban Missile Crisis, highlighting how the nuclear threat, though never fully realized in a direct attack, significantly influenced diplomatic strategies and heightened international tensions. Ultimately, the author argues that while nuclear weapons fueled the Cold War's escalation, the shared understanding of the unacceptability of a full-scale nuclear war ultimately acted as a powerful constraint, albeit a precarious one, preventing total annihilation.

Lüthi chapter 14: This text analyzes the role of nuclear weapons in shaping international relations during the Cold War. It examines how the acquisition and stockpiling of nuclear weapons became a primary means of achieving and maintaining superpower status, tracing this dynamic from the United States' initial monopoly to the emergence of a Soviet-American duopoly and the subsequent proliferation to other nations, like China, France, and the United Kingdom. The narrative highlights the strategic calculations behind nuclear proliferation—seeking global or regional preeminence and deterring rivals—while also exploring the attempts at international control through initiatives like the Baruch Plan and the Limited Test Ban Treaty. Finally, the text details the shift from a trilateral alliance to a bipolar nuclear standoff, emphasizing the complex interplay between nuclear strategy, diplomatic maneuvering, and the evolving geopolitical landscape.

Week 8 (October 22 & 24)

14. Cuban Missile Crisis

• Fiedel Catro was the leader of communist revolution in Cuba. In the 1960s he is released from Prison and nationalizes assest which was bad for the american economy. They made unsavory allies with communist leaders which scared the US. Fidels brother makes ocntet woth the soviets, and they make an agreement over oil which alienates the us from Cuba. Castro embraces the soviet union, and the US out of fear kept trying to kill castro. In the 1960s, relations between Cuba and Soviets get closer. 

• The US deployment of IRBMs in europe, which are short ranged missiles places in UN countries as a counter threat to the Soviets. Khrushchev says the US is raising tensions. 

• Cuba was still in revolution, so the soviets didnt consider them for nuclear armament. Soviets counter measure, how can they get their missiles closer to the us, they get a new submarine that can have missiles shot from them short range, so they put missiles in the submarine, they send it to China shanghai  in pacific ocean

  • Mao didn’t like this, he feared that soviets would try to control the chinese revolution. Credibility issue of soviets 

• Operation Andyr 1962: Cuban revolution is over and a new government is in place. Soviets decide to place short range missiles in Cuba to restore order in the nuclear imbalance. Kennedy suggests: US will remove their missiles in private of Khrushchev removed his publically to hinder Khrushchevs credibility. 

  • This is the closest to nuclear war the cold war ever came to… 

• This was the catalyst for the Limited Test Ban Treaty 1963: same time as berlin crsiis, soon vietnam war… the treaty was still being negotiated for a while. 

15. Détente

• Détente is the formal relaxation of policy specifically about nuclear powers 

• How can they live with each other, based on insight that both want to prevent a nuclear crisis : shared interests. How long does détente used,

• Nuclear Test Ban 1963: fear for the environment all over the world and the effects of radiation from testing. Included: obligation for nucelar states to not transfer nuclear weapons or know-how to non-nuclear states. 

• ABM issue: Mutal assured destruction would increase chances of war, they wanted to not only solve issue of number of nuclear weapons but also abm. 

  • Context of vietnam war and middle east crisis 

• 1972 Nixon goes to Miscow to sign two treaties and fot concessions from the soviets using their linkage policy and china: Salt 1 and ABM treaty 

  • Strategic: Watergate, threat of short range missiles, and public discourse of detent. 

• SALT 1: concenred offensive systems, capping of numbers of missiles and verification measures. 

• ABM treaty: cap how many each side had, 

• Soviet Intervention in Afghaistan 1979: underminds worlds trust. Detent failed. 

Mandatory Readings: 

Welch/Munton (all) & Reader 

15 Safranskaya: This excerpt analyzes Soviet foreign policy from 1962 to 1975, dividing it into two periods: Khrushchev's final years and Brezhnev's initial eleven. The authors highlight the contrasting leadership styles of Khrushchev (impulsive) and Brezhnev (consensual), noting their differing approaches despite the centralized Soviet system. A key theme is the shift from the Cuban Missile Crisis to the détente of 1975, driven by factors like nuclear proliferation and the USSR's achieving strategic parity with the US. However, while détente brought stability in Europe and arms control agreements, Soviet expansionism in the Third World, fueled by ideology and growing power, ultimately undermined this period of reduced Cold War tensions. The text concludes by emphasizing that the lasting success of détente hinged on a deeper consensus of values and principles between the US and USSR, which remained elusive until Gorbachev's era.

15 Schulzinger: This excerpt analyzes the Nixon-Ford administration's policy of détente toward the Soviet Union from 1969-1976. It details how Nixon and Kissinger, driven by a Realist foreign policy perspective emphasizing power and national interests over ideology, shifted from Cold War confrontation to a policy of limited cooperation with the USSR. While initially successful in reducing Cold War tensions and leading to arms control agreements like SALT I, détente was undermined by domestic opposition, particularly concerning human rights and perceived Soviet gains, as well as the Nixon administration's secretive and manipulative tactics. The excerpt concludes by assessing détente's legacy, noting its mixed impact and the ongoing debate regarding its success and ultimate contribution to the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union.

Week 9 (October 29 & 31)

16. Economic Integration in West and East Europe 

1. The Marshall Plan: George C. Marshall 1880-1959 

- Economics, lens in which we can think about the cold war, shows how people thought about politics, relationships and the cold war 

- Marshall Plan: European recovery program is the official name, George C. Marshall 1947 gave a speech in Harvard, he announces the ERP program, European union, Telegram: us should provide economic aid to west Europe 

○ Provide west Europe with economic aid, after world war two, for the firs time Greece and turkey got military and economic aid, 

○ 12 million us dollar aid to Europe 

○ European leaders sit to decide what they need, what the share for each will be, The French were the big obstacle they are important for shaping the European integration project, they is a way to put European conflicts to rest, 

○ US expected Soviets to reject it and for their allies to reject it, here they can blame soviets for poor relations, 

○ Responsible for the rebuilding of Europe 

- 16 European countries start to meet in 1945 on how to divide u the spending, 

○ Uk got most

○ Second France

○ Third west Germany 

○ Why? They all agreed to reconstruct important parts of Europe, to avoid civil disagreements, 

- How does the Marshall plan work 

○ Myths: us wanted to get into Europe, American economic boom happened because of this : reality, Americans were their own customers, internal development and markets not European. 

○ European destroyed economies, they countries got an account in Washington, then they need to decided where to invest in their country, they collect ideas of what to do internally with the money, Americans give both money and goods (ex to build rail road, they can get engines etc),  they would get this attached as uk credit lines in their currency (like a loan), the credit was kept in ERP fund, this became an investment vehicle used to invest into their economies over and over again, this is how credit lines were created and cane invested over and over again 

○ Cant buy food and medicine through Marshall plan 

○ quarter of ERP fund in Germany went into west Germany, 

○ There is a legacy of the Marshall plan to this day, 

○ Imperial mindset… 

- American economic boom post ww2

○ Pent up demand, people who now are buying their own homes and cars, delayed marriage and families, they buy evermore, and produce evermore, saving accounts after 1945 were high which fuels consumption, tax incomes etc used to pay off internal debts, 

4. West European Integration: Robert Schuman and Konrad Adenauer 

- Marshall Plan forces Europe to solve rivalries etc, French took leadership, the people in government were senior officials who were junior officials during ww1 and 2, they had already been concerned with integration, they thought during ww1 of how to resolve this conflict, they thought if creating economic merges depending on industry 

- They needed a structure to avoid wars… 

- Americans are no willing to push this idea of integration, everyone participating in integration initiatives are democratic Christians, they are socially progressive and economically conservative, 

- Economic miracle !

- Schuman: French politician, German roots, international background, he makes a proposal to create a European coal and steel ? To combine heavy industry capacities, to work for the recovery of Europe, they would create structural barriers 

○ Foundation 1951: ECSC 6 countries, some of the things they created still exist, common assembly is now ? 

- !957: The Rome Treaties

-  European economic communities: decreased tariffs 

- 1967: The Brussels Treaty (merger treaty) 

○ Escs, and eec and smt else? Came tgt and merged 

- 1992: Maastricht Treaty ( creation of the EU) 

○ Free market, free movement of goods, 

- Problems:

○ Dominance of France: they are taking over the integration process, they had agriculture, others didn’t, first tried to benefit off this through policy? This is still a problem, their large farms incentivise to ????? Charles De Gaulle he is a French nationalist, he doesn’t like the super-national idea, he wanted more freedom as leader, 

○ UK: they didn’t want to be apart of it, but also needed to, Churchill tried to undermine it many times, 

○ US: they started off supportive, the more Europe developed economically the less they relied on us, US thinks they pay more for NATO than Europe? The European economic success changes the market balance in the favor of Europe which puts us at a disadvantage, 

○ 1992 eu creates their own currency 

3. Council of Europe and Human Rights 1920s- 

- Not apart of European union 

- Idea of united states of Europe: had to subscribe to human rights (Un charter) and democratic 

○ Clearly anti soviet and wanted to mend human rights violations made in ww2 

○ Product of the cold war'

- Created three institutions 

○ Ministers: 

○ European Court of Human Rights : 1949 1953 the members of council of Europe singed the European declaration of human rights (frustration with UN charter, wanted to bring to further and create mechanisms to enforce human rights) 

○ every member state must submit to decisions of European court of human rights 

○ Very important for European integration

- Based on ideas of capitalist democratic human rights 

4. Council for Mutual Economic Aid CMEA, COMFCON

- Return to Marshall Plan: it stuck a knife in Soviets plans to expand communism into west Europe and take over the continent itself…. Needed the Americans out of Europe 

- How does Stalin react: he sends soviet delegation and other socialist states to Paris to disrupt the meeting, Socialist realize that it isn't working and they retract, Stalin realizes he now has to pay for the reconstruction of east Europe

- Traditional trade relations of now socialists East countries, and west now democratic countries, Stalin said to cut all ties, 

- Poland destroyed, 

- Yugoslavia start getting annoyed with Soviet control in relation to Marshall Plan, this is how they emerge as such an important non-alignment leader 

- Stalin tries to create an economic bloc and cut relations with the outside world, this is very costly for soviet union, 

- 1947 he creates CMEA: was meant o address economic struggles form Marshall Plan for East Europe? 

○ Soviet economic model emerging in 1920s-30s: socialist economy, make them independent economically form the world (except technology is fine lol) now CMEA they want to create smt bigger than this, including Eastern European countries 

○ They don’t know how to do this because their previous strategies were looking internal so how do they include East Europe 

○ They create national economy by creating soviet economies in their countries ??? But this isn't possible, they all had their own national economies so Soviets wanted to integrate this, who should produce what then? Socialist division of labour, 

○ some people (nationalist communist) that would resist, Moscow cant tell me what to produce, 

○ They kept coming up with reform ideas, ?

○ Soviet supported in term of supplies, non of the countries had a history of working together

○ they didn’t have the political will (West did that’s why it worked) 

○ It is never successful, this is apart of the collapse, eastern Europeans never thought this was a good idea 

○ West was successful, so eastern Europeans appealed to this, they all wanted to follow that model (or majority idk) 

Conclusion:

- West Europe: two forms of integration: economic and political (human rights), seeds from history, west European ideas supported by us financially, 

- East Europe: economic integration: existed to support soviet hegemony, reaction of Marshall Plan, CMEA created to keep us and Marshall Plan aid out of their sphere of influence, it didn’t succeed, lots of resistance, eventually the eastern European countries turn to the west for economic development, 

17. Berlin

Mandatory Readings: Lüthi chapters 15-17 

Luthi 15; This excerpt analyzes the historical development of Western European integration from the interwar period to 1979. The text highlights the crucial role of overcoming Franco-German antagonism as a driver for integration, initially spurred by concerns about Soviet expansionism and fueled by the devastation of World War II. While France consistently championed integration, Great Britain displayed ambivalent and often obstructive behavior, with the United States providing crucial yet carefully calibrated support. The narrative traces the evolution from early, primarily economic initiatives to the establishment of supranational institutions like the ECSC and EEC, ultimately culminating in the creation of the European Communities and the entry of the United Kingdom. The analysis emphasizes the interplay of national interests, ideological factors (particularly anti-Soviet sentiment), and the impact of external powers like the US and the USSR.

Luthi 16: This text analyzes the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), a Soviet-led economic organization in Eastern Europe from 1949 to 1991. The CMEA's creation stemmed from the Soviet Union's defensive response to the Marshall Plan and Western European integration, aiming to create a rival socialist economic bloc largely detached from the global capitalist system. However, inherent flaws, including the imposition of the Stalinist economic model regardless of national variations and the USSR's dominant role hindering genuine multilateralism, plagued the CMEA. Despite attempts at reform and increased trade among members, the organization’s rigid structure and ideological constraints ultimately prevented successful competition with the West. The CMEA’s failure stemmed from its inability to adapt to a changing global economy, its members' pursuit of national interests over collective goals, and the USSR's inability to relinquish its ideological grip, ultimately contributing to the collapse of Soviet influence in Eastern Europe.

Luthi chapter 17: This excerpt from "germany.pdf" analyzes the division and reunification of Germany within the larger context of the Cold War. It details how Germany's post-World War II division into Western and Eastern states, initially seen as temporary, solidified due to the geopolitical realities of the Cold War and the differing internal policies of each German state. The contrasting political and economic systems, the differing approaches to national identity and reunification, and the pivotal roles of key leaders like Adenauer and Ulbricht are highlighted. The text further traces the evolution of German-German relations, including the construction of the Berlin Wall, the development of Ostpolitik (East Policy), and the eventual signing of the Grundlagenvertrag (Basic Treaty), which normalized relations and led to both German states' admission to the United Nations. Ultimately, the excerpt emphasizes how Germany's experience profoundly shaped the course of European integration during the Cold War era.

Week 10 (November 5 & 7)

18. CSCE & Vatican

Law in the sense of standards of behavior. Unintended consequences: outcomes occasionally rarely rlly match intentions; they are not the same thing 

Uninteneded consequences:THEME

- Cold war came abt partially bcuz of stalins actions, doesn’t mean Stalin intended to bring abt the cold war

- Globalization fo the cold war was a result of the orea war, however it was not the intention 

Khrushchev didn’t intend to suffer humiliation by putting missiles in cuba

Vietnam war, us didn’t intend to lose credibility in international relations 

Helsinki process 

Intentions don’t match outcomes 

Had an impact in the long term….

• Human rights in west europe: CSCE had an emphasis on human rights in international relations, as the UN charter wasnt being properly enfroced. ANy europe state that signed would lose part of their rights as decisions made by the court would trump their sovereignty. This was a reaction to world war two, to mend ideological divisions in Europe. 

• Soviets did not care about human rights, WARSAW pact did not include human rights. The Budapest Appeal of the Waraw pact in 1969 asked for peace and securoty in Europe., a call for relaxation of tensions and increased cooperation, and call to avoid military confrontation/arms race. 

• CSCE negotiations: helsinki and geneva 1972-75: how to reconcile post war borders, economic east-west relations and human rights. 

• Helsinki 1975: Declaration of Principles, legal recognition of borders except between germany because both eanted unification under their own rule, focus on human rights as individual rights. Neogtiations continue, the West ow gains some access to the East. 

• The Vatican: Socialist world had a large catholic population, but all spehres of chirstianity were fragmented. In USSR they were under the umbrella of the orthodox church which aligned heavily with the governement. 

• Poland is a major agent in the end of communism in East Europe, and the vatian is central to this story as well. 

• Pope John 23rd makes concession to soviet regime to restore catholic sacraments, marriage etc, instrumental way of thinking of trying to restore catholic church in east europe   

  • Said to have planted to seeds for freedom… Restores catholic churches in east europe poland etc… 

• Pope John Paul II 1979: goes to Poland and made a cross with his arms in front of over 1 million Polish people. 

  • This was interpreted as the Soviets losing religious control leaving spiritual emptiness that the Pope filled. This showed the spiritual alienation of the soviet union in Poland and East Europe… weakening of soviet ideation and power 

• Pope John Paul II endorsed the Polish free union movement in 1981 when he met its leader Lech Walesa. 

  • This was a visual of Polands soon freedom from the soviet union 

- What to make to rise of human rights? 

○ Two issues: normative aspect to this debate,  Provided tool to get into other state normative instrument becomes political instrument 

§ Ex families: we used to not intervene in domestic abuse, now we do…. 

§ Human rights are now a tool to intervene in other states… the sovereignty of states is below individual rights 

○ CSCE is crucial to holding socialist states accountable for human rights abuses, they were now under international supervision, which helped west Europeans to stand up, west Germany to stand up and demand their rights be returned tp them… Poland becomes key actor in the end of communism in east Europe 

○ No one saw this happening, unintended outcome

- Human rights debate is the western European contribution to the end of the cold war:

NOT THE AMERICANS BUT THE WEST EUROPEANS THAT PUSH IT startinf in 1960s

19. Africa

Violencein african decolonization 

Vietnam lectyre: starts in 946 and starts as an anti colonial war, which becomes involved in the cold war

It can be several different hings

Partition of India In 1947

East Pakiustan crisis 

Biafra crisis 1967: Nigeria

Christian ethnic group, in oil rich part, they succeed from Muslim nigeria, Biafra was recignized as a state by other african states but forced to intergrate into Nigeria 

Militarily integrated into Nigeria

- Protestors, contet vietnam war protestst etc

- Genocide? 

Kwame Nkrumah

- Authoritrian form of governement I sbetter suited to sort out economic problems 

- He though democracy was to problematic

- Ghana president 

- 9 years after he was overtrhwon by his own military generals 

Julius Nyerere

- Authrotitarism 

- Violence to make it homogenous 

- He succeeds unlike Nkhrumah 

- Huge internal violence and oppression 

When did the cold war arrive in Africa and why did it enter the war? 

No an easy answer… 

Post colonial legacies….

Africa after independence

- Nasser in view of October war, he tries to cut Israeli alliances with African states, uses Saudi as new oil supplier 

- Competition of sympathy of African states 

- Stalin died in 53 and had 0 interest In the development world 

- Now peaceful competition us v su to give development aid in africa?

- 1960 Africa produced enough food for themselves and export, they can feed themselves, urban problems arrive as a result of industrialization, the result is that Africa loses a lot of its agricultural production, cant feed themselves anymore, also population growth, result of well intention but ill-suited economic aid/development 

- Economic aid often comes with ties: expect to give smt back, raw materials, or political promises ex don’t recognize socialist Germany… 

- So far cold war is not a major crisis /…

- Some cases of violence rooted in this : Congo

Congo: corruption and violence under Mobutu 

- Congo crisis 1960 

- Congo was a private colony of Belgium king, brutal, very violent, eventually Belgium steps in and revokes ownerships , this leads to a settlement in the Congo, small settler society 

- 1950s nationalist movement started, run by African educated elites

- Gain independence in 1960, general elections held, compagin was very intense, belgium settlers against Lumumba and say hes a soviet pawn but he was not, 

- Patrice Lumumba: party has largest number of seats in parliament, and its clear hell become president post independnace, belgium people get scared and flee back to europe, congo starts to fall into internal crisis 

- Center state is so weak, Lumumba welcomes a un peacekeeping force: the task was to ensure that belgium colonizers to leave, he then turns to soviet union and china tro stop resistance, this alarms the united states (similar to nasser and egypt, cold war logic kicks in they scared), Moscow 3 months early actually started a university called Lumumba to create leader wtv, 

- Mobutu stages a coup against Lumumba, and takes over and stays in power unti 1997? 

Mobutu: corrupt, violent 

What was the role of external influences:

- Ghana: Nkrumah leader, turns to soviet union, authoritarian, had a relationship with Lumumba, 

- Pan African union: Nkrumah vision

- Killing of Lumumba and propaganda by cia made Nkrumah went to soviets 

- On a visit to Moscow, Nkrumah was overthrown, the soviets actually knew it was happening and didnt tell him, 

- Non-aligned movement 

- Soviets trying to capitalize on the crisis 

- US? No real evidence that us who had? Killed 

Belgium?

- They aggravate the crisis long before 1960… 

- Try to maintain informal influence in Congo

Conclusion:

Africa is a huge number of states that emerge, you have to look at them individually, 

General remarks: colonial legacies, economic dependencies, training of post colonial elites that benefit from the neocolonial structure, 

Local decision-making too, shareWhend responsibility, mistakes in leadership etc, both external and internal influences 

Cold war came late, when they both offer economic aid in the 1950s, they have similar models for aid, us and su thought their model or variation was the most suitabe for african states and they learnt over time beither work for them… local conlficts bring the cold war in, 

Result was disaster, mongola 1970s 

Mandatory Readings: Lüthi chapters 18-19 & Reader (19. Natufe) 

Luthi 18: 

Luthi 19: This excerpt analyzes the evolving relationship between the Vatican and communist Eastern Europe during the Cold War. It traces three distinct papal responses: Pius XII's fatalistic resistance, John XXIII and Paul VI's strategic engagement aimed at strengthening the Church's internal position, and John Paul II's direct confrontation. The analysis emphasizes the Vatican's proactive role in shaping events, highlighting how seemingly conciliatory policies under John XXIII and Paul VI, particularly in Poland, inadvertently laid the groundwork for the later, more assertive opposition under John Paul II. The text argues that the Vatican’s actions, while evolving, consistently aimed to preserve and ultimately strengthen the Catholic Church in the face of communist ideology and repression, culminating in the influential papacy of John Paul II.

19 Natufe: Omajuwa Igho Natufe's 1984 article, "The Cold War and the Congo Crisis, 1960-1961," analyzes the Congo's post-independence turmoil within the broader context of the Cold War. The author argues that the Congo became a battleground for competing Soviet and American interests, with the newly independent nation's internal power struggles exploited by both superpowers. Natufe meticulously details the intricate alliances formed between Congolese political factions, Belgian colonial interests, and the major Cold War powers, culminating in the assassination of Patrice Lumumba. Ultimately, the article uses the Congo crisis to critique the United Nations' role as a tool of neo-colonialism and advocate for independent African military alliances to resist external interference.

Week 11 (November 12 & 14)

20. Latin America

Was there a cold war in Latin America?

• Not everything that happens during the cold war is necessarily apart of the cold war

• Decolonized in early 19th century, Napoleonic wars, except Caribbean,

• Historical left/right conflict, extremely unequal distribution of land, and Latin American left/right didn’t have to do with the cold war

• Monroe doctrine : us claims to have hemispheric hegemony over the Americas, this claim was made in wake of great Britian catching up to them over dominance and power in Latin America. It is simply a claim to power

• 1940s or 1840s????: American/Mexican war

• Local agency actually matters: you need to understand regional conflict and politics to understand international

• American intervention in latin America often had bad results

• Roosevelts and international relations in this region ????

• Interests groups???

• Americans realize they are competitng eith rigth wing govs in Europe: Italy, Germany, spain, us was scared of far right in Latin America

• Non of this is improtant to the cold war

Rare interstate war

In this ocntext: US emmerges from ww2 as dominant pwr in system and cold war starts to unfold mostly in europe then east asia and the americans globalize the cold war in the korean war 

Organization of American states: Affiliated with the united nations

Regional system that were meant to work as un for regional issues

Issues based on Pan-American ideas

• American fear of communism in Latin America, but soviet union only became involved in 1960s….

• Globalize containment, this precedes the Korean war?

• Brings the cold war prematurely into Latin America

• Reinforces ?

• Americans start relations with elites in latin america

• Shared interest is against the left,

•  justify military aid

• Both sides have a reason to work together,

• Us is arming elites in latin american whuch is used to surpress the left ? 

Many coup d’etats in latin American from 50s-70s as Cuba tried to export the communist revolution in Latin America. As Cuba runs out of options, they reach out to the US for an agreement to not attack each other. 

• Ernesto Che Guevara: he helps Catsro overthrow the Batista government as he disagreed with the less aggressive policies of Cuba. Overtime, Cuba became less interested in supported revolution in Latin America due to internal conflicts. 

• 1960s and 70s Cuba and Africa: Why did they engage: decolonization, Cuba has a very small population of African decent , brotherhood with African country , ideological connections, soviets also engaging with Africa. Competition with the soviet union: soviets trying to create détente with 1963 test ban and proliferation, Mao in China and Castro pushing for revolution in other parts pf the world. Eventually pushes anti left agenda onto the non aligned movement. Arms delivery from Cuba to algeria to support against french imperalism, cuba accepted wounded fighters for treatments, 1964 Cuba promises military and health aid to angola and congo, trial for cuba, small amounts of aid, they figure out that medical aid was cheapest and most effective, and the cubas work with a medical delegation that are form north Vietnam,

• global support for African decolonization

•  Suba support freedom fighters in Guinea-Bissau

• They realize they don’t have the resources to do anything

• Then they re-engage

• Us tells south Africa to stop relations with cuba, but they say no these are friends of 30 years

• Cubas retreat from revolution from latin america turn towards africa, cuba commitment to reolvtion, people were willing to give up riches or comfort to commit to revolution and anti-imperialism 

21. The End of the Cold War in the Middle East

Israeli-Egyptian Rapprochement, 1977-1979

• Usa gets involved in peace process as sadat wanted

  • Wanted to prolong peace process so they could stay involved

• Carter realizes many goals in middle east are mutually dependent, have to find solutions for all of them

• May 1977: israeli gov changes; begin becomes prime minister 

• Sadat frustrated that americans werent pushing peace process to resolution

• Sadat talks directly with israel, wants to cut out great powers

• Israeli prime minister wanted peace with egypt to remove greatest arab enemy so he could focus on eastern front 

  • Integrating west bank into israel

• Sadat has more open agenda, wants peace so he can get israeli promise to have palestinian state in gaza/west bank 

• Sadat goes to israel november 19, 1977, speaks to parliament on nov 20

  • Declares 30 years of fighting were enough, shares desire for peace and compromise

• Visit was a surprise to americans, thought they could run the show 

• 2 sides get deadlocked because of 2 different visions 

• Americans step in, carter invited both leaders to camp david, september 1978

• September 17 1978; camp david accords: agreement on transitional arrangements for gaza and west bank to achieve self governance 

  • Egyptian israeli agreements: peace treaty, diplomatic relations, israeli withdrawal from sinai 

• Egyptian israeli peace treaty, march 29 1979: withdrawal from sinai, boundary questions, international cooperation, un supervision, israeli ships in egyptian waters

  • First israeli arab peace trearty

• Israelis immediately go against treaty and start construction initiative in west bank

• No more israeli arab peace negotiations

• Most arab state severed relations with egypt, egypt kicked out of arab league

• Arab states cut subsidies to egypt

• Sadat had tried to court political islam, released islamists from prison and try to enter coalition of convenience 

  • Wanted to go after radical left 

  • Broke from nassers idea of egyptian socialism

  • Needed islamists as partner for going after socialists

• Islamists reject him reaching out to israel, view him as traitor 

• Announce that its the duty of every good muslim to overthrow sadat 

• October 6 1981: sadat assassinated by islamists who had infiltrated army 

  • Signified revival of political islam in arab world

  • Warning to other arab leaders about making peace with israel; caused other states

Iranian Revolution, 1979

• Shah mohammad reza pahlavi in power in 53, eventually also suppressed islamists

  • Authoritarian regime attempting to install one party state in royalist party

  • Crushed any political alternatives

  • Westernization, secularization 

• Led to religious protest

• Oil income was taken by shah instead of invested in infrastructure, education, etc

  • Huge inflation and unemployment, large wealth inequality

  • Americans were employed in oil business, didnt fall under local law

• Ayatollah ruhollah khomeini emerges as religious leader; one of the first to openly denounce the shah in early 60s

  • Accuses him of selling out country to the west

  • Calls for destruction of shah government in favor of islamist gov

• Forced to leave the country in early 60s, ends up in iraq where he works out islamist ideas

• Revolution starts 1978: revolt against shah by middle class, no clear political direction

  • Unified by hatred for shah, everyone agreed he had to go

• Shah forced to abdicated in january 1979 

• Anti shah leaders return from exile like khomeini on feb 1 1979

• Carter gov realized shah had become liability, tried to help negotiations for shah to abdicate but didnt really do anything, resigned under domestic pressure

• Khomeini becomes head of revolution

  • 2 phase of revolution as islamist phase

• Sep 1979: shah went to egypt than panama

• Americans give him visa for humanitarian reasons, for only 2 weeks

  • Allows khomeini to go after americans

• Radicalized students occupied american embassy in tehran, khomeini sees as opportunity to humiliate americans for their agreement with shah

• Americans as enemy #1, uses it to islamize the revolution 

  • Western modernization as the enemy because of relationship with shah

• Anti american and anti soviet 

  • Marxism came from west

• Became model for islamist groups throughout middle east 

• Huge socio economic issues in these arab states, allowed movement to grow, khomeini used it to export islamist revolutions around arab world

  • Shias around arab world mobilized

• Hussein was dictator in iraq, saw opportunity to present iraq as leader of arab world

  • Replacing egypt 

  • Makes case that they need to go against persian islamists

• War between iraq and iran, used by khomeini to motivate revolution and gain support 

  • Secular attack of sunis by shias

• Americans viewed as to benefit of soviets

  • Even though communists were being persecuted

  • Saw islamic revolution through zero sum lens of cold war, not on our side means theyre on their side 

  • Cold war thinking dominating everything 

• Soviets hoped fall of shah would lead to pro soviet gov but obviously wasnt true when they realized it was also anti soviet regime 

  • Led to intervention in afghanistan out of fear that iranian islamism might jump into soviet sphere

• to shy away from collaborating with israel

• Islamists had infiltrated all parts of egyptian gov

• Arab states also go after islamists, many imprisoned

Afghanistan War, 1979-1989

• Clear cold war conflict

• Final nail in coffin of detente, confirms to west that soviets cant be trusted and are inherently aggressive 

• Had been a country of interest to soviets since 20s, on southern border

• Started to promote communist party in 60s

  • Small and always split by ethnic lines

• Soviets were surprised when communists pulled off coup in april 1978

• 78-79: soviets presented with first indigenous communist revolution at their border

  • The ones in east europe were soviet installed, not indigenous

• Run by party thats at war with each other

• Soviets think communist regime will collapse because of waring factions within party

  • One leader killed the other 

• Intervene to save revolution and kill the still alive leader, who they see as causing the problems

• Intervene christman 1979

• Rallies islamic war and the west

  • Islamic world: west infiltrating arab world

  • West: shows how soviets cant be trusted

• Islamist resistance to soviet intervention becomes resistance by foreigners, pakistan egypt and saudi arabia stepped in 

• Hardening of american opinions towards soviets because end of detente 

• Americans see iran as islamic danger but see islamists as allies in afghanistan

  • Oppose islamism in iran, support in afghanistan 

  • See everything through lens of cold war 

• Shows how cold war as ordering principle doesnt make sense anymore in middle east 

• Afghanistan becomes breeding ground/training field for militant islam 

  • Leads to 9/11, isis, etc

Lebanese Civil War, 1975-1991 

• Many palestinian refuges after being kicked out of jordan, becomes center of plo activites

• One of richest arab countries in 60s

• Causes of civil war: israeli security interests, syrian meddling, palestinian population

• 4 major religious groups: shias, sunis, christians, ?

  • Plo also an actor 

• Fraying political system because it worked that each group had certain amount of seats in parliament 

  • Worsened by presence of plo

  • Shia grows, the rest stay the same; shia as underrepresented, alienated from political system

  • Collapse of political consensus

• Socio economic factors: wealth inequality

• Military presence of plo in south used to launch attacks against israelis

• Sparked by drive by killing near christian churches in 75 

• By 79 plo started to infiltrate israel on regular basis from lebanon, israel retaliates by invading southern lebanon to root out plo strongholds

• Un reacts by sending in forces to try to keep warring parties apart on lebanon border

• 82: prime minister begin of israel invades again to go after plo leadership and ensure election of christian ally as pres of lebanon 

  • So he could impose peace agreement by force

• Plo is removed, headquartered moved to tunisia

  • Disarmed, sent into exile

• Americans french italians oversee withdrawal of plo from lebanon 

• Christian leader does get elected but assassinated before hes sworn in 

• Causes violent retaliation from christian groups

• 83: israelis get peace agreement under force

  • Canceled in 84 

• Hezbollah: islamist party and claims to represent shia minority emerges

  • Increasingly replaces state in lebanon, provides social and economic services the state cant provide 

  • Established with help of iran 

  • Inspires foundation of hamas 

  • Legitimizes political violence, overthrows gov and puts shia gov in lebanon 

• As plo withdraws in 82-83 → suicide attacks against american targets in embassies, etc

  • First time there are islamist attacks against western targets

• Reagan walks away, pulls out american troops

  • Until 9/11

• Continues until 89/91

• All parties so exhausted that they use context of ending cold war to end civil war

• Period in middle east when islamism becomes visible political force

• Soviet and americans unable to understand meaning of islamism because theyre preoccupied with cold war, interpret through cold war logic 

Mandatory Readings: Reader (

20. Westad chapter 13: The provided image shows excerpts from a chapter titled "The Cold War and Latin America" within a larger work on the Cold War. The text likely details how the Cold War impacted Latin American nations, exploring the influence of both the United States and the Soviet Union in the region. Key themes might include political instability, ideological struggles, economic interventions, and the rise of various political movements shaped by the superpower rivalry. The overall purpose is to analyze the Cold War's complex and far-reaching consequences in Latin America.

Lüthi chapters 20: 

Week 12 (November 19 & 21)

22. The End of the Cold War in East Asia 

23. The End of the Cold War in Europe?

Mandatory Readings: Lüthi chapters 21-22 

Luthi 21: This excerpt analyzes the shifting dynamics of the Cold War in Asia during the late 1970s and early 1980s. It focuses on three key factors: the evolving relationship between communist China and Indochina, the changing antagonism between the US and East Asian communist states, and the decline of India's non-aligned foreign policy. The text details the breakdown of Sino-Vietnamese relations, culminating in the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia and China's subsequent punitive war against Vietnam, a conflict influenced by US-China rapprochement. Simultaneously, it describes India's internal political turmoil and its fluctuating relationships with the superpowers and regional actors, highlighting the impact of these events on the Non-Aligned Movement's credibility and effectiveness. The overall purpose is to demonstrate how regional realignments and conflicts in Asia, driven by ideological and geopolitical shifts, contributed to the eventual unraveling of the global Cold War structure.

Luthi 22: This excerpt analyzes the economic and political transformations in Europe during the latter half of the Cold War, specifically from the 1970s to the mid-1980s. It details the growing economic crises in both Eastern and Western Europe, highlighting the impact of the Bretton Woods collapse and oil shocks in the West and the mounting debt and declining productivity in the Soviet-led Eastern bloc. The text then explores how the Polish crisis of 1980-81, coupled with the Soviet Union's inability to economically support its Eastern European satellite states, and the rise of conservative leaders in the West (Thatcher, Reagan, Mitterrand, Kohl), fundamentally altered the dynamics of the Cold War. Crucially, the Soviet Union's failure to intervene militarily in Poland, signaling the demise of the Brezhnev Doctrine, and the subsequent pursuit of Western economic ties by Eastern European nations, are presented as pivotal moments in the eventual unraveling of the Soviet bloc. The piece concludes by showing how these events laid the groundwork for the later end of the Cold War in Europe.

Week 13 (November 26 & 28)

24. The end of the systematic Cold War 25. Post-Cold War

Mandatory Readings: Lüthi chapters 23-24 

Luthi 23: This excerpt analyzes the end of the Cold War, arguing against a simplistic narrative of American victory. It highlights the crucial role of Mikhail Gorbachev's failed attempts to revitalize the Soviet Union, emphasizing his simultaneous pursuit of Cold War goals and internal reforms (Glasnost and Perestroika). The text details Gorbachev's struggles to manage a crumbling Soviet economy, navigate complex relationships with Eastern European satellite states, and shed costly foreign commitments (e.g., Afghanistan, Cuba). While acknowledging Reagan's staunch anti-communism, the author contends that the USSR's collapse stemmed from internal weaknesses rather than a direct American defeat. Ultimately, the text presents a nuanced view of the Cold War's end, emphasizing the multifaceted factors contributing to the Soviet Union's dissolution, including Gorbachev's ill-fated reforms and the inherent limitations of the Soviet system.

Week 14 (December 3)

26. Wrap-Up

Mandatory Readings: Lüthi Introduction & Conclusion 

Main themes found across readings: 

Several interconnected themes appear throughout the sources regarding the Cold War, including the ideological conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union, the nuclear arms race, the expansion of the Cold War beyond Europe, and the concept of détente.

Ideological Conflict: The Cold War is frequently characterized as a clash between the ideologies of socialism and capitalism, with the Soviet Union and the United States as the main protagonists. This ideological battle manifested as a struggle for global hegemony, with both sides engaging in propaganda to undermine the other's influence. The conflict was not solely between the two superpowers, but also involved other countries aligning with either the "Socialist Camp" or the "Free World". The expansion of communism was a major concern for the United States, leading to a policy of "containment". The Soviet Union, on the other hand, aimed to consolidate the "socialist commonwealth of nations". This ideological struggle extended beyond Europe, with both superpowers seeking influence in newly independent countries in Asia and Africa.

Nuclear Arms Race: The development and proliferation of nuclear weapons is a central theme of the Cold War. The United States and the Soviet Union both rapidly built up their nuclear arsenals, leading to a dangerous arms race. The threat of nuclear war was a constant factor. The concept of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) emerged, which, while making a full-scale nuclear war less likely, also solidified the position of the US and USSR as superpowers. The nuclear arms race also led to various arms control agreements, such as SALT I and SALT II, but these agreements were often undermined by mistrust and the development of new weapons technologies. The development of nuclear weapons also influenced other nations to attempt to develop their own programs.

Expansion of the Cold War: The Cold War extended geographically beyond Europe and into the Third World, with both the US and the USSR vying for influence in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. The sources describe how conflicts in various regions were often influenced by, or became entangled with, the broader Cold War competition. For example, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the Arab-Israeli conflicts all became proxy battlegrounds for the two superpowers. The sources also note that the Cold War shaped relationships within these regions, such as the relationships between Egypt, Syria and Israel. The rise of non-aligned movements was also a factor in the expansion of the Cold War as many developing nations attempted to avoid alignment with either the United States or the Soviet Union.

Détente: The concept of détente, or the easing of tensions, is also present in the sources. Détente is characterized by attempts to establish a "structure of peace" through arms control agreements, trade relations, and political cooperation. The period of détente is marked by summit meetings, like the ones between Nixon and Brezhnev, and the signing of agreements like SALT I and the Helsinki Accords. However, détente was fragile and faced challenges due to distrust, domestic opposition, and continued competition in the Third World. The sources also describe how détente was viewed differently by the US and USSR, with the Soviet Union wanting to achieve military and political parity, while the US wanted to limit conflict and manage international conflicts.

Other themes:

*   Internal divisions: Each of the Cold War power blocs experienced internal dissent and conflict. The Soviet Union faced unrest in Eastern Europe, while the United States faced challenges from Western European democracies. The Arab League also experienced internal disunity.

*  The decline of traditional powers: The sources describe how the United Kingdom’s power declined during the Cold War, despite the UK’s attempts to maintain its status through a nuclear program. The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the dominant superpowers.

*   The role of ideology: Ideology played a significant role in the Cold War, shaping the policies and actions of both superpowers. However, national interests also influenced decision-making.

*   The influence of individuals: The sources highlight the influence of individual leaders, such as Khrushchev, Brezhnev, Nixon, and Kissinger, on the course of the Cold War.

*   The rise of political Islam: The rise of political Islam as a force that transcended the Cold War is noted in some of the sources.

These are just some of the prominent themes that appear throughout the texts and they highlight the complexity and multifaceted nature of the Cold War.

Chronology:

Okay, here's a chronological overview of key events and developments related to the Cold War, based on the provided sources:

1920s-1940s

• 1923: Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi publishes Pan-Europa, advocating for a unified Europe.

• 1926-1928: The Northern Expedition in China leads to conflict between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and Chiang Kai-shek's forces.

• 1937: A second united front is established in China against Japanese aggression.

• 1940s: The beginning of the Cold War is marked by the ideological conflict between the US and USSR.

• 1945: The end of WWII, the Potsdam Agreement leads to the division of Germany.

• 1946: Muhammad Ali Jinnah proposes a global Islamic League in Cairo.

• 1946: Nehru becomes prime minister of the Interim Government of India and clarifies his thinking about Asian-African internationalism.

• 1947: The Truman Doctrine is established, which pledges US support to countries resisting communism.

• 1947: The Marshall Plan is created to provide economic aid to European countries.

• 1947: The Soviet Union and its allies disengage from the global economy, initiating the Stalinist economic model in Eastern Europe.

• 1947: The Indian government convenes the first Asian Relations Conference in New Delhi.

• 1948: The Brussels Pact is signed by the United Kingdom, France, and the Benelux countries.

• 1948: The United States, United Kingdom, and France merge their occupation zones in Germany, foreshadowing the creation of West Germany.

• 1949: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is established.

• 1949: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) is established by the Soviet Union and its allies.

• 1949: The Chinese Communist Revolution results in the founding of the People's Republic of China.

• 1949: The Soviet Union successfully tests its first atomic bomb.

1950s

• 1950: NSC 68 warns of a potential Soviet nuclear attack and calls for a buildup of US forces.

• 1950-1953: The Korean War takes place.

• 1953: The death of Stalin.

• 1954: The Geneva Conference seeks to restore peace in Korea and Indochina.

• 1954: The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) is founded by the US and its allies.

• 1954: The Sino-Indian agreement on Tibet includes the five principles of peaceful coexistence (Panchsheel).

• 1955: The Bandung Conference brings together Asian and African nations, promoting non-alignment.

• 1955: West Germany gains near complete sovereignty.

• 1955: Konrad Adenauer visits Moscow and negotiates the return of German POWs.

• 1955: The Hallstein Doctrine is announced by West Germany.

• 1956: Khrushchev's Secret Speech denounces Stalin.

• 1956: The Suez Crisis occurs.

• 1956: A meeting on the island of Brioni between Tito, Nasser, and Nehru is the foundation of the Non-Aligned Movement.

• 1957: The Soviet Union launches Sputnik, marking the beginning of the space race.

• 1958: The Great Leap Forward begins in China.

• 1959: Khrushchev and Mao have a conversation where the conflict between them is made clear.

1960s

• 1960: The Congo Crisis begins.

• 1960: The U-2 incident leads to the collapse of the Paris Summit.

• 1960: Zhou Enlai visits Delhi to discuss the Sino-Indian border issue.

• 1961: The Berlin Wall is erected.

• 1961: The Non-Aligned Movement gains momentum.

• 1962: The Cuban Missile Crisis brings the world to the brink of nuclear war.

• 1963: The Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT) is signed.

• 1963: The Dimona nuclear reactor in Israel is completed.

• 1964: Khrushchev is ousted from power in the Soviet Union.

• 1964: The first Arab League Summit is held in Cairo.

• 1964-1975: The period sees movement from the Cuban Missile Crisis to the high point of détente.

• 1966: De Gaulle tells his Soviet hosts that the GDR is “an artificial construct”.

• 1966: The CMEA tries to address economic reform.

• 1967: The Six-Day War occurs, which greatly alters the landscape of the Arab-Israeli conflict.

• 1968: The Prague Spring is crushed by a Soviet-led invasion.

• 1968: Saudi Arabia hosts a conference on Islamic theology and the Palestinian Question.

• 1969: The Sino-Soviet border clash.

• 1969: An arson attempt at Al-Aqsa Mosque.

1970s

• 1970: The Moscow Treaty is signed by the USSR and West Germany.

• 1970: The Rogers Plan is outlined by the US, aiming for a ceasefire between Egypt and Israel.

• 1971: The Quadripartite Agreement on Berlin is signed.

• 1971: The Sino-American rapprochement.

• 1972: The two Germanys extend recognition to each other.

• 1972: Egypt expels Soviet military advisors.

• 1972: The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I) agreement is signed between the US and USSR.

• 1972: Brandt is re-elected in Germany.

• 1973: Brandt visits Israel.

• 1973: The Yom Kippur War takes place.

• 1973: Brandt signs a treaty with Czechoslovakia.

• 1973: A Central Committee plenum in the Soviet Union endorses East-West détente.

• 1975: The Helsinki Accords are signed, solidifying European borders.

1980s

• Early 1980s: Structural changes have set the stage for a possible end of the Cold War.

• 1981: The Polish government appoints General Wojciech Jaruzelski as prime minister and prepares plans for martial law.

• 1989: The Brezhnev Doctrine is declared dead and replaced by the "Sinatra Doctrine".

• 1989: The fall of the Berlin Wall.

• 1989: The Solidarity movement in Poland leads to the first non-communist prime minister in the Eastern Bloc.

The end of the Cold War can be understood through multiple perspectives, as seen in the sources. These perspectives emphasize different factors, including the roles of superpowers, internal pressures, and regional transformations.

• Superpower Dynamics and Limitations: One perspective highlights the limitations of the superpowers, particularly the Soviet Union. The sources suggest that the Soviet Union, despite its military power, was facing internal economic and political weaknesses that ultimately led to its decline. The Soviet Union's economic system was failing, and its attempts at reform were unsuccessful. The rise of Mikhail Gorbachev and his policies of perestroika and glasnost are seen as significant factors that contributed to the Soviet Union's eventual collapse. The sources also emphasize that while the US under Reagan took a strong stance against the Soviet Union, the end of the Cold War was less of a victory for the United States than it was a result of the Soviet Union running out of steam. The US and the USSR were both, according to one source, "Cold Warriors almost until the very end".

• Internal Pressures and Dissidence: Another perspective focuses on internal pressures and dissent within the Soviet bloc. The rise of human rights movements in Eastern Europe, particularly in Poland, played a critical role in undermining the legitimacy of communist regimes. The Helsinki Accords, while intended to solidify European borders, also provided a framework for human rights activists to challenge their governments. The sources note that the Soviet government's attempts to suppress dissent were ultimately unsuccessful. Dissatisfaction with the lack of freedoms was also seen among intellectuals and young people in the Soviet Union.

• Regional Transformations and the Decline of Ideology: The sources also emphasize regional transformations that occurred outside of the direct influence of the superpowers. By the early 1980s, the Cold War had ceased to be the critical factor that shaped the regional system in the Middle East, and the rise of political Islam as a force that transcended the Cold War was noted. Similarly, in Asia, the collapse of communism as a unifying program led to shifts in alliances. The Sino-Soviet split and China's eventual rapprochement with the US further weakened the ideological basis of the Cold War. These regional changes demonstrate that the Cold War was not a monolithic global conflict but rather a complex interaction of various factors.

• The Role of Individuals: The actions and decisions of individual leaders are also highlighted in the sources as important factors. For example, Gorbachev's willingness to pursue reforms and his move away from traditional Soviet policies are seen as crucial to the end of the Cold War. The role of figures like Nixon and Kissinger and their pursuit of détente also is mentioned, but it is also noted that they did so without a full understanding of the forces shaping international relations at the time. Additionally, the influence of Pope John Paul II, in his support for human rights and his engagement with Gorbachev, is seen as significant.

• The End of a Bipolar World: Some sources also emphasize the emergence of a multipolar world where power was no longer solely held by the US and the USSR. The rise of China as a major player, along with the economic growth of Europe and Japan, contributed to the decline of the bipolar system of the Cold War.

• A Process not a Single Event: It is important to note that the end of the Cold War was not a single event but rather a process that unfolded over time. The sources highlight how the structural changes that led to the end of the Cold War were in place by the early 1980s, but the conflict only ended after key figures and events pushed the superpowers over a threshold. The fall of the Berlin Wall, the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union all occurred in a relatively short period but resulted from the gradual changes that took place over the preceding decades.

In summary, understanding the end of the Cold War requires considering a range of interconnected factors. No single explanation fully accounts for this complex historical event. It involved the weakening of the Soviet Union, the rise of internal dissent, regional transformations, the actions of key individuals, and the shifting global balance of power.