Core Notes 3
Why was there a struggle for power in 1918?
Friedrich Ebert
Born Heidelberg 1871 of humble background + trained as saddler
As an apprentice, he became involved in trade union work
soon recognized by SPD leadership and entered Reichstag in 1912.
WW1 divided SPD; Ebert worked hard to reconcile differences + 1916 chosen as leader BUT 1 yr later party split + USPD created
Germany collapsed in 1918, Ebert supported parliamentary democracy with constitutional monarchy, but at Kaiser abdication, accepted chancellorship.
Successfully held first democratic German elections; led to National Assembly + creation of Weimar constitution.
Attacked for endorsing use of army + Freikorps to suppress radical left.
From humble background, to country’s 1st president (Feb 1919) until his death in 1925 aged 54 of ruptured appendix
Oversaw years of crisis + applied emergency decrees of Article 48 with success
BUT focus of scurrilous criticism from extreme right
Man of integrity + decency, patriot, served w/ honour, character + achievements shaped development of Weimar.
Ebert’s Constituent Assembly
Ebert not revolutionary, believed in evolutionary change via winning majority in parliamentary elections + introducing reforms
Although chosen by Prince Max as new Chancellor b/c he was leader of majority party in Reichstag, he came to power through revolutionary act
Conscious his govt. lacked legitimacy, determined to est. new constitution ASAP
His priority, after agreeing armistice with Allies on 11 Nov. = organize elections for Constituent Assembly.
Constituent Assembly: elected body with specific task of drawing up new constitution, usually in aftermath of revolution
Prior creation of constitution, Ebert urged Germans to keep essential services running, to avoid street demonstrations + maintain law & order
problem was his authority didn’t extend much beyond Berlin; disorder + violence = norm
After armistice + demobilization of army; angry, disillusioned, unemployed ex-soldiers roamed streets w/ demonstrations, strikes + armed clashes becoming regular occurrences.
Socialist Groups + Parties in 1918
Although there was genuinely revolutionary situation in Germany in Nov. 1918, left-wing movement behind it not united, Consisted of 3 main strands:
Spartacist League (Later KPD)
Founded 1916 by revolutionary minority group from SPD; name changed to German Communist Party (KPD) in Jan. 1919. Extreme left.
refused participation in parliamentary elections, preferring to place faith in workers’ councils.
Led by Karl Liebknecht + Rosa Luxemburg. ‘Red Rosa’ born in Poland of Jewish origins. She was badly disabled and endured continuous pain. Founder of Spartacus League + imprisoned during war. Although integral to forming German Communist Party in 1918, she opposed 1919 uprising + murdered in police custody in Berlin
Wanted republican govt. controlled by workers’ + soldiers’ councils, welfare benefits, nationalization, workers’ control of major industries, disbanding of army + creation of local workers’ militias. Opposed WW1.
Supported by workers on rallies + demonstrations in streets = 5000 members
From 1914 they had opposed war, deeply influenced by Lenin + Bolshevism, believed Germany should follow same path as communist Russia + fundamental aim = creation of soviet republic w/ rule of proletariat through workers’ + soldiers’ councils
USPD
Founded 1917; breakaway minority group from left of SPD
Led by Hugo Hasse, a leading figure of the SPD who opposed the war from 1914 and became key in foundation of USPD. Initially joined Ebert’s provisional govt. in 1918 but resigned over suppression of workers. Shot and died of wounds in 1919.
Wanted a republic with national Reichstag working with workers’ + soldiers’ councils, welfare improvements, nationalization of industry, breaking up of large estates, reform of army + creation of national militia. Opposed ww1.
Support grew in strength during 1918 as war-weariness grew – Although minority in Reichstag, had substantial following of 300,000 members
Demanded radical socio-economic change + political reforms BUT far from united and internal divisions curtailed influence, main disagreement between those who sympathized with creation of parliamentary democracy and those who advocated more revolutionary democracy based on workers’ councils.
Dec. 1918 USPD members of Ebert’s govt. resigned over shooting of Spartacists by soldiers, but split over their desire to introduce fundamental socio-econ, changes not support by SPD
The Social Democratic Party (SPD)
Founded 1875 as a Marxist socialist party committed to revolution
Led by Friedrich Ebert + Philipp Scheidemann
Wanted moderate socialist republic with democratic elections + basic personal freedoms, welfare improvements + gradual nationalization of industry. Wanted continuity and order + supported Germany’s entry into WW1.
Appealed to working-class voters + 1912 became largest party w/ 1 million members
Committed to parliamentary democracy & rejected anything similar to Soviet communism.
Increasingly isolated in end of 1918, moved further political right & grew dependent on civil service + army to maintain effective govt.
Ebert’s Coalition Govt.
Lack of unity in Ebert’s coalition b/c of diff. aims + methods of socialist movement
German society = chaotic, near collapse; leading political figures had little room to make hasty/difficult decisions
Ebert was a moderate + feared political situation in Germany could easily run out of control
Ebert’s main worry was extreme left getting upper hand & recognized growing no. of workers’ councils = fear it may threaten policy of gradual change
Determined to maintain law and order & prevent country collapsing into civil war + feared return of millions of troops after Armistice agreement, would create enormous social + political agreements
SO Ebert + SPD leadership tried to make agreements w/ army, industrialists in the nxt month
Ebert’s Main Problems
i)Socio-economic:
Inflation. Wages falling behind prices, increasing social discontent
Shortages. From winter of 1916-7 fuel + food shortages causing real hardship in cities
Flu epidemic. The ‘Spanish Flu’ killed thousands, the most serious flu epidemic of 20th century.
ii) Left-Wing Opposition:
Strikes. From autumn 1918 no. of strikes and lock-outs increased markedly
German Communists. Inspired by Russian revolution, communists sought German revolution
Workers’ and soldiers’ councils. 100s of councils created, wanting change to army + industry
iii) Right-Wing Opposition:
Freikorps. Growing no. of right-wing, nationalist soldiers forming paramilitary units.
Army. Generally conservative, but deeply embittered by military defeat.
Nationalists. Nationalist-conservatives against abdication of Kaiser + didn’t support republic.
iv) Military
Demobilisation. Abt 1.5 million soldiers had to be returned home to Germany.
Allied blockade. Allies maintained naval blockade + after Armistice = Shortages, social distress, not relieved until June 1919
Peace terms. Armistice agreement to stop fighting, general public concern of terms + effects of peace treaty
Pressure from the Left
Ebert’s efforts to contain revolution threatened by pressure for radical change from left
Couldn’t ignore workers’ and soldiers’ councils, Spartacists + USPD had est. foothold, made running in the early stages of the revolution; weren’t going to allow Ebert’s govt. to take decisions w/o reference to them
On 22 Nov. agreement reached between new govt. + Berlin workers’ + soldiers’ councils = govt. accepted it only exercised power in the name of these councils
Temporary compromise, many in USPD, w/ leaders part of Ebert’s govt., saw councils as true expression of revolutionary will of people + means for revolution to be extended
Belief that autocratic system of govt. wouldn't be abolished w/o aristocratic estates broken up, army, civil service + judiciary democratized + key industries nationalized under workers’ control.
Pressure from army + Ebert- Groener Pact
Survival of Ebert’s govt. dependent on support of army, most officers from aristocratic backgrounds, loyal to Kaiser = opposed to democracy, no wish for German Republic.
H/E late 1918 political situation in Germany = highly unstable + officers believed Germany faced danger of Bolshevik Revolution (Russia in Oct. 1917) could lead to civil war + possible Ally occupation
Therefore first concern was prevention of revolution going further
10 November, day after declaration of republic, Groener phoned Ebert assuring army leadership would support govt. & use troops to maintain stability + security of new republic
In return, Groener demanded Ebert oppose spread of revolutionary socialism & preserve authority of army, resist demands of soldiers’ councils to democratize army & defend Germany against communism
Ebert assured Groener govt. was determined to resist further revolution + uphold existing command structure in army = became known as Ebert-Groener Pact
Ebert-Groener telephone conversation = v significant.
Stinnes- Legien agreement
Few days after Ebert-Groener pact, on 15 Nov., Karl Legien, leader of trade unions + Hugo Stinnes, leader of industrial employers, held another significant discussion.
Stinnes-Legien agreement = deal where trade unions commit not to interfere w/ private ownership + free market, for workers’ committees, 8 hour working day + full legal recognition.
Ebert’s govt. endorsed, b/c trade unions = powerful movement + traditionally close w/ SPD.
Struggle for Power Continued
Ebert saw pact was necessary + unavoidable to ensure orderly transition to New Republic
Critics on left, saw as betrayal of revolution
Critics accuse Ebert supporting compromises w/ force of conservatism: army wasn't reformed + not committed to democracy + employers resented concessions + unsympathetic to Weimar system.
Counter-argument, Ebert + SPD motivated by desire to guarantee stable, peaceful transition
Ebert + cabinet prepped election of Constituent Assembly, Jan 1919, as power struggle cont.
6 Dec 1918 – Spartacist demonstration in Berlin fired on by soldiers, killing 16
23-24 Dec – Navy revolt against govt. in Berlin, army ended + protest, 3 USPD ministers resign
6 Jan 1919 – Spartacists launched armed revolt against govt. in what became known as January Revolution or Spartacist Uprising à after week of heavy fighting in Berlin, revolt crushed.
Core Notes 3
Why was there a struggle for power in 1918?
Friedrich Ebert
Born Heidelberg 1871 of humble background + trained as saddler
As an apprentice, he became involved in trade union work
soon recognized by SPD leadership and entered Reichstag in 1912.
WW1 divided SPD; Ebert worked hard to reconcile differences + 1916 chosen as leader BUT 1 yr later party split + USPD created
Germany collapsed in 1918, Ebert supported parliamentary democracy with constitutional monarchy, but at Kaiser abdication, accepted chancellorship.
Successfully held first democratic German elections; led to National Assembly + creation of Weimar constitution.
Attacked for endorsing use of army + Freikorps to suppress radical left.
From humble background, to country’s 1st president (Feb 1919) until his death in 1925 aged 54 of ruptured appendix
Oversaw years of crisis + applied emergency decrees of Article 48 with success
BUT focus of scurrilous criticism from extreme right
Man of integrity + decency, patriot, served w/ honour, character + achievements shaped development of Weimar.
Ebert’s Constituent Assembly
Ebert not revolutionary, believed in evolutionary change via winning majority in parliamentary elections + introducing reforms
Although chosen by Prince Max as new Chancellor b/c he was leader of majority party in Reichstag, he came to power through revolutionary act
Conscious his govt. lacked legitimacy, determined to est. new constitution ASAP
His priority, after agreeing armistice with Allies on 11 Nov. = organize elections for Constituent Assembly.
Constituent Assembly: elected body with specific task of drawing up new constitution, usually in aftermath of revolution
Prior creation of constitution, Ebert urged Germans to keep essential services running, to avoid street demonstrations + maintain law & order
problem was his authority didn’t extend much beyond Berlin; disorder + violence = norm
After armistice + demobilization of army; angry, disillusioned, unemployed ex-soldiers roamed streets w/ demonstrations, strikes + armed clashes becoming regular occurrences.
Socialist Groups + Parties in 1918
Although there was genuinely revolutionary situation in Germany in Nov. 1918, left-wing movement behind it not united, Consisted of 3 main strands:
Spartacist League (Later KPD)
Founded 1916 by revolutionary minority group from SPD; name changed to German Communist Party (KPD) in Jan. 1919. Extreme left.
refused participation in parliamentary elections, preferring to place faith in workers’ councils.
Led by Karl Liebknecht + Rosa Luxemburg. ‘Red Rosa’ born in Poland of Jewish origins. She was badly disabled and endured continuous pain. Founder of Spartacus League + imprisoned during war. Although integral to forming German Communist Party in 1918, she opposed 1919 uprising + murdered in police custody in Berlin
Wanted republican govt. controlled by workers’ + soldiers’ councils, welfare benefits, nationalization, workers’ control of major industries, disbanding of army + creation of local workers’ militias. Opposed WW1.
Supported by workers on rallies + demonstrations in streets = 5000 members
From 1914 they had opposed war, deeply influenced by Lenin + Bolshevism, believed Germany should follow same path as communist Russia + fundamental aim = creation of soviet republic w/ rule of proletariat through workers’ + soldiers’ councils
USPD
Founded 1917; breakaway minority group from left of SPD
Led by Hugo Hasse, a leading figure of the SPD who opposed the war from 1914 and became key in foundation of USPD. Initially joined Ebert’s provisional govt. in 1918 but resigned over suppression of workers. Shot and died of wounds in 1919.
Wanted a republic with national Reichstag working with workers’ + soldiers’ councils, welfare improvements, nationalization of industry, breaking up of large estates, reform of army + creation of national militia. Opposed ww1.
Support grew in strength during 1918 as war-weariness grew – Although minority in Reichstag, had substantial following of 300,000 members
Demanded radical socio-economic change + political reforms BUT far from united and internal divisions curtailed influence, main disagreement between those who sympathized with creation of parliamentary democracy and those who advocated more revolutionary democracy based on workers’ councils.
Dec. 1918 USPD members of Ebert’s govt. resigned over shooting of Spartacists by soldiers, but split over their desire to introduce fundamental socio-econ, changes not support by SPD
The Social Democratic Party (SPD)
Founded 1875 as a Marxist socialist party committed to revolution
Led by Friedrich Ebert + Philipp Scheidemann
Wanted moderate socialist republic with democratic elections + basic personal freedoms, welfare improvements + gradual nationalization of industry. Wanted continuity and order + supported Germany’s entry into WW1.
Appealed to working-class voters + 1912 became largest party w/ 1 million members
Committed to parliamentary democracy & rejected anything similar to Soviet communism.
Increasingly isolated in end of 1918, moved further political right & grew dependent on civil service + army to maintain effective govt.
Ebert’s Coalition Govt.
Lack of unity in Ebert’s coalition b/c of diff. aims + methods of socialist movement
German society = chaotic, near collapse; leading political figures had little room to make hasty/difficult decisions
Ebert was a moderate + feared political situation in Germany could easily run out of control
Ebert’s main worry was extreme left getting upper hand & recognized growing no. of workers’ councils = fear it may threaten policy of gradual change
Determined to maintain law and order & prevent country collapsing into civil war + feared return of millions of troops after Armistice agreement, would create enormous social + political agreements
SO Ebert + SPD leadership tried to make agreements w/ army, industrialists in the nxt month
Ebert’s Main Problems
i)Socio-economic:
Inflation. Wages falling behind prices, increasing social discontent
Shortages. From winter of 1916-7 fuel + food shortages causing real hardship in cities
Flu epidemic. The ‘Spanish Flu’ killed thousands, the most serious flu epidemic of 20th century.
ii) Left-Wing Opposition:
Strikes. From autumn 1918 no. of strikes and lock-outs increased markedly
German Communists. Inspired by Russian revolution, communists sought German revolution
Workers’ and soldiers’ councils. 100s of councils created, wanting change to army + industry
iii) Right-Wing Opposition:
Freikorps. Growing no. of right-wing, nationalist soldiers forming paramilitary units.
Army. Generally conservative, but deeply embittered by military defeat.
Nationalists. Nationalist-conservatives against abdication of Kaiser + didn’t support republic.
iv) Military
Demobilisation. Abt 1.5 million soldiers had to be returned home to Germany.
Allied blockade. Allies maintained naval blockade + after Armistice = Shortages, social distress, not relieved until June 1919
Peace terms. Armistice agreement to stop fighting, general public concern of terms + effects of peace treaty
Pressure from the Left
Ebert’s efforts to contain revolution threatened by pressure for radical change from left
Couldn’t ignore workers’ and soldiers’ councils, Spartacists + USPD had est. foothold, made running in the early stages of the revolution; weren’t going to allow Ebert’s govt. to take decisions w/o reference to them
On 22 Nov. agreement reached between new govt. + Berlin workers’ + soldiers’ councils = govt. accepted it only exercised power in the name of these councils
Temporary compromise, many in USPD, w/ leaders part of Ebert’s govt., saw councils as true expression of revolutionary will of people + means for revolution to be extended
Belief that autocratic system of govt. wouldn't be abolished w/o aristocratic estates broken up, army, civil service + judiciary democratized + key industries nationalized under workers’ control.
Pressure from army + Ebert- Groener Pact
Survival of Ebert’s govt. dependent on support of army, most officers from aristocratic backgrounds, loyal to Kaiser = opposed to democracy, no wish for German Republic.
H/E late 1918 political situation in Germany = highly unstable + officers believed Germany faced danger of Bolshevik Revolution (Russia in Oct. 1917) could lead to civil war + possible Ally occupation
Therefore first concern was prevention of revolution going further
10 November, day after declaration of republic, Groener phoned Ebert assuring army leadership would support govt. & use troops to maintain stability + security of new republic
In return, Groener demanded Ebert oppose spread of revolutionary socialism & preserve authority of army, resist demands of soldiers’ councils to democratize army & defend Germany against communism
Ebert assured Groener govt. was determined to resist further revolution + uphold existing command structure in army = became known as Ebert-Groener Pact
Ebert-Groener telephone conversation = v significant.
Stinnes- Legien agreement
Few days after Ebert-Groener pact, on 15 Nov., Karl Legien, leader of trade unions + Hugo Stinnes, leader of industrial employers, held another significant discussion.
Stinnes-Legien agreement = deal where trade unions commit not to interfere w/ private ownership + free market, for workers’ committees, 8 hour working day + full legal recognition.
Ebert’s govt. endorsed, b/c trade unions = powerful movement + traditionally close w/ SPD.
Struggle for Power Continued
Ebert saw pact was necessary + unavoidable to ensure orderly transition to New Republic
Critics on left, saw as betrayal of revolution
Critics accuse Ebert supporting compromises w/ force of conservatism: army wasn't reformed + not committed to democracy + employers resented concessions + unsympathetic to Weimar system.
Counter-argument, Ebert + SPD motivated by desire to guarantee stable, peaceful transition
Ebert + cabinet prepped election of Constituent Assembly, Jan 1919, as power struggle cont.
6 Dec 1918 – Spartacist demonstration in Berlin fired on by soldiers, killing 16
23-24 Dec – Navy revolt against govt. in Berlin, army ended + protest, 3 USPD ministers resign
6 Jan 1919 – Spartacists launched armed revolt against govt. in what became known as January Revolution or Spartacist Uprising à after week of heavy fighting in Berlin, revolt crushed.
