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Population Disasters in Europe

• Start and End of Chapter: 14th century with the Black Death; concludes with American depopulation due to the Columbian Exchange.

Transition from Empires to Nations in Europe (Page 2)

• European Map in 1500: Highlighted major national boundaries.

• Shift Towards Nations: Early modern period (e.g., Napoleon, Queen Victoria, Hitler) emphasized nations rather than empires, a significant departure.

• Nations Defined by: Ethnicity, language, customs, and religion; often in conflict over different identities.

• Asian Empires: Customary for different ethnicities within empires; examples include:

  • China: Oldest and largest.

  • Mughal Empire: In India.

  • Safavid Empire: In Persia (Iran).

  • Ottoman Empire: Across the Middle East.

Ottoman Empire Expansion (Page 3)

• Rise of the Ottomans: Emerged near the Byzantine Empire, established power under Sultan Mehmed II (1453) taking Constantinople, a crucial city.

  • Strategic Importance: Controlled Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits, linking Mediterranean to the Black Sea.

  • Cultural Autonomy: Allowed Christian and Jewish communities some autonomy in exchange for loyalty.

  • Cultural Impact: Christian refugees fueled Renaissance in Venice and Florence.

• Military Expansion: Under Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566), nearly captured Vienna (1529, 1683).

• Trade and Economy: The high cost of dealing within Ottoman territories encouraged alternative trade routes to Asia.

Ottoman Social Structure and Military (Page 5)

• Diversity: Multi-ethnic and multicultural empire; local customs accepted as long as taxes were paid.

• Janissaries: Elite military forces trained from tribute boys, becoming politically influential; overthrown in 1826 leading to modernization struggles.

• Decline: By the 19th century, Ottoman influence waned amid European advancements.

Rise of the Safavid Empire (Page 7)

• Shiite Muslim Dynasty: Controlled from Ottoman eastern border through Iran into parts of Afghanistan, Georgia, Armenia, and Pakistan (1501-1736).

• Shah Abbas the Great: Moved capital to Isfahan; welcomed Armenians post-genocide, establishing cultural centers.

Mughal Empire Overview (Page 8-9)

• Establishment: Founded in 1526 by a dynasty claiming descent from Genghis Khan.

• Cultural Fusion: Emerged from Tamerlane’s legacy; Sikhism took root in Punjab, blending Hindu and Islamic elements.

• Golden Age: Akbar (r. 1556) promoted religious tolerance, preserving Indian cultural diversity.

  • Architectural Achievements: Notably the Taj Mahal.

Expansion of the Russian Empire (Page 9-10)

• Formation and Resistance Against Mongols: Ivan III’s refusal to pay tribute initiated expansion; declared the Grand Duchy as the New Rome.

• Ivan the Terrible (r. 1547-1584): First to declare himself Tsar; expanded Russian territory significantly.

• Peter the Great: Sought modernization and Westernization; visited Europe to reform military and administrative practices.

Impact of the Black Death on Europe (Page 12)

• Demographic Changes: Harsh climate, famine led to millions dead before and during the plague (1347-1353).

• Decline of Feudalism: As population dwindled, surviving peasants demanded rights leading to revolts.

• Political Fragmentation: European regions could not unify; too many local powers and languages conflicting with establishing a single empire.

Renaissance and Humanism (Page 13-14)

• The Printing Press: Allowed for the spread of criticisms about the church, igniting the Renaissance.

• Humanism’s Emergence: Focus on classical learning outside church doctrines; influential figures challenged religious authorities.

Protestant Reformation and Martin Luther (Page 15-18)

• Luther’s Critique: Argued against corruption in the Catholic Church; objections to indulgences initiated widespread reformation.

• Literacy and Publications: Translations and pamphlets spread Protestant ideas; Reformation’s growth linked to rising literacy rates.

Enlightenment Thinkers (Page 24-25)

• Natural Science Development: Building on Newton’s discoveries led to societal and political theory formulation; skepticism towards religious authority increased.

• David Hume's Views: Challenged miraculous claims and proved essential for philosophical debate on faith.

Economic Changes and Capitalism (Page 28-30)

• Rise of Capitalism: Explained by Adam Smith; economic growth linked to agricultural surplus and urban specialization.

• Merchant Influence on Policy: Close ties between businesses and political agendas shaped the capitalist framework.

Reconquista and Portuguese Trade (Page 31-32)

• Concept: Reconquista—Christian efforts to reclaim Iberian Peninsula from Muslim rule.

• Exploration: Portugal focused on trade along African coasts; established connections facilitating further exploration and sugar cultivation.

African Slave Trade (Page 35-37)

• Traditional Slavery: Existed in African societies; different from European demand for labor in the Americas.

• Sugar Plantations: Significant driver behind the demand for African slaves in the Americas; harsh conditions led to high mortality.

King Afonso I of Kongo's Letters (Page 40-41)

• Concern Over Slave Trade: Expressed regret over Portuguese activities leading to kingdom depopulation.

• Appeals for Assistance: Requested for educated professionals to aid his people, highlighting damage caused by European dealings.