Psych 490 updated notes

Chapter 12 Social Psychology

• Psychology: Scientific study of individual mental process and behavior (Wundt). Early psychologists agreed. Modern social psych traces its origins to Kurt Lewin’s studies during 1940’s (ch6)

• Social Influence: How the social situation shapes a person’s behavior.

• Solomon Asch (1907-1996): Polish-American Social Psychologist. Studied conformity/visual discrimination. Interested in perception and memories. Used “confederates” in experiments: collaborated with experiments. Wrote Social Psychology (1952)

• Conformity: Changing behavior as a result of real or imagined group pressure.

• Solomon Asch’s study: Participants were male college students in a study concerning visual discrimination task. Some confederates began to give obvious wrong answers. Found true participants went along with the incorrect answers about ⅓ of the time and tested individually

• Stanley Milgram (1933-1984): American Social Psychologist, Conducted controversial studies on obedience to authority. His mentor was Asch. Wrote Obedience to Authority (1974). Where he proposed that participants hand undergone Agentic Shift

• **(**Stanley Milgram) Agentic Shift: A process in which people transfer responsibility for their own actions to an authority figure, thus they believed there were no consequences for their own actions.

• Stanley Milgram Influence: The effects of his experiments cause the following things to occur: 1st, This idea caused a need to review for ethical treatment of human participants in studies during this time. 2nd, It helped solidify the idea that the situation is a main determinant of behavior. 3rd, It demonstrated that carefully scripted scenarios in the laboratory can be used to test hypotheses about social behavior.

• Milgram’s Obedience Experiment: There were 40 participants between the ages 20 - 50 years at Yale University who became the “Teacher” in a study on the effects of punishment on learning and memory. Procedure; Teachers were chosen and learners were taken to another room, teachers were instructed to conduct a paired-associate learning task to the learners, if the learner answered incorrectly they were to be shocked with increased voltage after every incorrect answer. Results; 110% of participants administered some shock, 65% obeyed the experimenter’s command to deliver 450 volts to the learner (confederate) Feedback; First set of participants to drop out of experiment did so at 300 volts

• Muzafer Sherif (1906-1988): Turkish-American psychologist. Studied spread of social norms and dynamics of intergroup conflict. Wrote Psychology of Social Norms (1936), examined ways that perceptual judgements are influenced by social interactions. Goes back to Turkey with students and translated a number of key psychological measures, including stanford-binet tests.

• Used Autokinetic effect method: Stationary point of light appears to move, asked distance and direction. (Muzafer Sherif)

• Muzafer Sherif, His experiment known as Robbers Cave State Park Study: In 1949, he studied the processes that lead to conflict and cooperation among groups of boys attending a summer camp program. Phase 1, 1st week of camp, groups named themselves the eagles, the rattlers, and formed attachments to group members, not aware of other groups (randomly divided). Phase 2, Group conflict with 4-5 days of competition plus 2 days of cooling off. Phase 3, Conflict resolution “contrived” task-tasks requiring them to work together (6-7 days).

• Realistic conflict theory: Group conflict arises from competition over resources. (Muzafer Sherif)

• Social Cognition: Typical thought patterns that people engage in as they interact with others. (drives our social behavior)

• Leon Festinger (1919-1989): American social psychologists who developed Social comparison Theory and Cognitive Dissonance Theory

• **(**Leon Festinger) Social Comparison Theory: The Proposal that people evaluate their own opinions and abilities by comparing themselves to other people who are similar to them. They write up their experiences in the classic book When Prophecy Fails (1956). Demonstrated how to construct dramatics social situations in the laboratory to test important hypotheses about human behavior. In 1954, a Chicago housewife announced that she was in telepathic communication with space aliens who’d informed her that the Earth would be destroyed at the end of the year. They were sending a flying saucer to rescue her and any belivered before it occurs. Festinger, Stanley Schavhter, & Henry Riecken joined the group.

• **(**Leon Festinger) Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: The Mental discomfort that occurs when a person holds contradictory beliefs or when there is a mismatch between attitudes and behaviors. Boring task experiment-Festinger and Carlsmith, 1959, $1 or $20 to lie.

• Stanley Schachter (1922-1997): American Psychologist who developed the two factor theory of emotions. Festinger was his mentor

• **(**Stanley Schachter) Two-Factor Theory of Emotion: The proposal that emotions consist of general physiological arousal and a cognitive evaluation based on the situation

• **(**Stanley Schachter) Deviation from group standards: The reward for conforming is acceptance into the group

• (Stanley Schachter) Social Perceptions: The ways that we make inferences about motivations and intentions of those we interact with

• Harold Kelley(1921-2003): American Social psychologists, who played important roles in developing interdependence and attribution theories. His Classic thesis: How being told someone is “warm or cold” affected others’ attitudes and behavior toward that person; Collaborated with John Thibaut to write The Social Psychology of Groups (1959)

• **(**Harold Kelley) Interdependence Theory: Is a description of how the costs and benefits of particular interactions lead to decisions about whether to cooperate or cost and whether to continue to leave the relationship (1978)

• Kelley’s Covariation Model: Is the proposal that people make attributions by considering which potential cause best predicts behavior. There are three potential causes for behavior…1The personal characteristics of the person were making an attribute about…2Entities, or other people that make up the social situation…3Time-Modality, the characteristics of the specific situation in which the behavior was taking place.

• Ellen Berscheid (1936-): American social psychologist recognized as leader in the field of relationship science. Collaboration with Kelley published Close Relationships (1983)…Dynamics of close interpersonal relationships/romantic love.

• Lee Ross (1942-2021): American Social Psychologist who discovered the fundamental attribution error. Called it an “error because situational factors are ignored even when they’re important for explaining the behavior and salient to the observer. We tend to feel its personal characteristics that drive behavior

• **(**Lee Ross) Social Relations: Study of interactions between two or more people, groups, or organizations

• Robert Zajonc (1923-2008): Polish American social psychologists who explained Social Facilitation, and discovered the Mere Exposure Effect.

• ( Robert Zajonc)Social Facilitation: It is the effect that the presence of others has on individual’s ability to perform a task.

• (Robert Zajonc) Mere exposure effect: It is the observation that people tend to like familiar items more than unfamiliar ones.

Chapter 13: Developmental Psychology

• John Bowlby (1907-1990): British psychologist who studied the impact of mother-child separation & proposed attachment theory, 1944 published Forty-Four Juvenile Thieves, case studies of youtube (thieves and non-thieves) at the London Child Guidance clinic. 1948 with James Robertson started study of the effect of maternal deprivation. Study involved children who’d spent long periods in hospital during the first 4 years of life; at that time parental visitation was very limited;

• (John Bowlby) Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis: Prolonged separation from the mother in early childhood leads to pathological personality development in adolescent

• **(**John Bowlby) 2-PRONG PROCEDURAL APPROACH: 1 Retrospective study, observe children who have returned home but spent extensive amount of time at hospital. 2 Prospective study: Observing children who are going to be in the hospital for extensive amount of time who have limited visitation. Found that these children went through 3 stages after being separated from their mothers. Protested strongly when mother was leaving them, followed by a period of despair. If separation lasted more than a week they showed no affection to their mother when reunited. The third stage of when children went back home they did rebuild their relationship with their mother but there was lack of trust. Some never rebuilt their relationship with their mother. From this study came the documentary film A Two-Year-Old Goes to the Hospital. This led to reform in hospital practices. Mary Ainsworth hired by Bowlby for Analysis data. Bother were already thinking about the mother-infant relationship in similar ways. From this partnership Bowlby published Attachment Theory a 3-volume series (1969)

• Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999): Canadian American Psychologists who developed the Strange Situation, a laboratory procedure for testing attachment style.

• (Mary Ainsworth) Went to Uganda (1953) to observe formation of mother-infant bonds and what happens when it is disrupted. This led her to the creation of the Strange Situation paradigm, a laboratory procedure designed to test an infant’s attachment style in which the mother-briefly leaves her child alone in an unfamiliar room (John Hopkins). Different attachment styles develop due to differences in maternal sensitivity; how attentive and responsive

• Mary Main (1943-): An American developmental psychologist who has constructed methods for assessing attachment styles during the early school years, adolescence, and in adulthood. Developed the Adult Attachment Interview. Discovered the fourth attachment style in Ainsworth’s, disorganized attachment.

• Diana Baumrind (1927-2018): American psychologist and pioneer in research on parenting styles. Known for her longitudinal study of parent (one of the first to include fathers as well as mothers. Started when the children were preschoolers, followed 100 families through school age to late adolescence. Wrote Effect of Authoritative Parental Control on Child Behavior (1966).

• (Mary Main) Developed 3 types of parenting styles: Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive. Maccoby and Martin added the Uninvolved /neglectful style (1953)

• Albert Bandura (1925-2021): Canadian-American psychologist best known for his bobo doll experiments. By the early 1960s, Bandura was thinking of social learning as a process of modeling.

• Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005): Russian-born American psychologist who developed the Ecological Theory of Development. Co-founder of the Head Start program (1965)

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Chapter 14 Personality Psych

• Personality: Study of an individual’s characteristic ways of feeling, acting, and thinking

• Hippocrates: (~460-379 BC): Four-factor theory, based on 4 ‘humors’- blood, black bile, yellow bile, phlegm.

• (Hippocrates) Psychoanalytic Model: Trait approach/ the Big five model-now the consensus approach to personality.

• Allport Brothers - Floyd and Gordo: Floyd Allport (1890-1978) published Social Psychology, Personality shaped by Experience. Gordon Allport (1897-1967), American psychologist who is considered the founder of modern personality psychology. “The study of the Undivided Personality” Concert of the self as an unchangeable core of an individual. Trait Approach,, Trait… A stable internal characteristic of an individual that is a determinant of behavior. Founder of the trait theory… personalities can be analyzed into a finite number of measurable traits. Believed personality could be divided into 3 categories- single cardinal trait, central traits, secondary traits

Factor Approach

• London School: Those that measured individual differences and searched for laws governing these differences… Raymond Cattell…Hans Eysenck….Robert McCrae…Henry Murray

• Studied Intelligence [Spearman & Burt], Then Personality

• Raymond Cattell (1905-1998): British-American psychologist who proposed an influential sixteen-factor model of personality. Fluid intelligence versus crystallized intelligence. Developed culture -free intelligence test. Personality,, University of Illinois. Developed from factor analyses/computer that personality had a hiercharca; structure, with broad second order factors above and two or three narrow first-order factors clustered underneath each of these. Published theory in his 1950 book personality: a systematic theoretical, and factual study. Developed the sixteen personality factor questionnaire (16F) to measure each of the First- order factors he’d found in his analyses. Insisted on the correct of the 16 factor hierarchical model throughout his life

• Hans Eysenck (1916-1997): German-British psychologist who advanced a three-factor theory of personality. Developed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire based on his three-factor theory of Personality: PEN model.. One factor related to degree of sociability, called extraversion. The second factor involved susceptibility to anxiety and emotional instability, called neuroticism. Eysenck described this two factor theory of personality in his first book, Dimensions of personality..Third factor was labeled psychoticism. Published his modified three factor theory in his book The Structure of Human Personality. Linked personality structure to biological conditions of the nervous system

• Lewis Goldberg (1932-): American Psychologist who developed Goldberg’s Big Five model, Big Five-Model of Personality consisting of 5 factors. His personality factors were…Extraversion…Agreeableness…Conscientiousness…Emotional Stability…Culture, a global measure of an individuals intelligence and curiosity

• Robert McCrae (1949-) & Paul Costa (1942-): American Psychologist who developed another Big Five Factor Model. Started with NEO-PI, Then Expanded to…Openness to new experience..Conscientiousness…Extraversion…Agreeableness…Neuroticism.

• Difference between the two models: Goldberg views the Big Five only as a descriptive model of personality. Robert McCrae, Big Five Factor Model. Started with NEO-PI.

• A newer model developed by Lee & Ashton (2007): HEXACO Model with 6 Factors, H -Honesty-Humility, E- Emotionality, X- Extraversion, A- Agreeableness, C- Conscientiousness, O- Openness to experience.

• Henry Murray (1893-1988); American personality psychologist mostly known for his development of the TAT. In 1935, published article describing Thematic Apperception Test, a projective personality test consisting of a series of ambiguous pictures that the subject is asked to describe. Dynamic Approach

• Social Cognitive Approach: Julian Rotter…Bonnie Strickland…

• Julian Rotter (1916-2014): American psychologist who developed the concept of internal or external control of reinforcement [internal versus external focus of control]. Advocated the Social Learning Theory of Personality: individual differences develop through divergent life histories

• Bonnie Strickland (1936-): American psychologist who studied the mental health of persons and groups, who are marginalized from mainstream society. At the time of the civil rights movement, she found that black activists had a strong internal locus of control compared to nonactivists. Developed an Internal-External Locus of Control (IE) Scale for children. Assessed career aspirations of black children and found it to be lower than that of white children, due to their economical disadvantage. Delay of gratification (marshmallow study) was greater in presence of black experimenter versus a white experimenter

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Chapter 10: Physiological and Comparative Psychology

• Physiological psychology: The study of how behavior is generated and guided by the nervous system

• Comparative psychology: The study of the origin, control, and consequences of behavior across a wide range of species

• Walter Cannon(1871 -1946): American physiological psychologist best known for concepts of fight or flight and homeostasis. Fight or flight response: The body’s arousal to a dangerous situation. Identified the sympathetic nervous system as the regulator of the fight or flight response and discovered the role of hormone adrenaline in arousing the body for action

• (Walter Cannon) Homeostasis: The process by which the body maintains stable internal conditions. Involves the autonomic nervous system

• Walter Cannon Bard theory of emotions: proposed that stimulation of the thalamus leads to both physiological arousal and the psychological experience of emotion. Disagreed with the James/Lange theory of emotions. Claimed that the bodily arousal happened too slowly for it to be cause of emotional experiences (James Lang theory). Conclusion, It’s focus was on the psychological experience of emotion whereas CB’s looked at only physiological responses to emotional situations

• John Garcia (1917-2010): The first Hispanic-American psychologist and discoverer of conditioned state aversion. Regular classical conditioning: NS needs to be immediately followed bt UCS; CC takes multiple conditioning trials

• (John Garcia) Conditioned Taste AVersion (CTA): learned avoidance of a food associated with illness. The food (NS) may be consumed half an hour or more before the stomach distress (UCS) occurs which then produces vomiting (UCR). ONLY have to have 1 conditioning trial to develop CTA. Injected killed sheep with chemical causing nausea and vomiting in coyotes. Brain and mind

• Kar Lashley (1890-1958): American physiological psychologist who studied how memories are formed in the brain, Wrote Brain Mechanisms and Intelligence (1929): contained studies concerned the location of memories in the brain.

• **(**Kar Lashley) Engram: Hypothetical location in the brain where a memory is stored. Provided evidence that memories, especially for complex tasks, were widely distributed across the cerebral cortex.

• (Kar Lashley) Proposed the Mass action law: Observation that an impairment on functioning depended on the amount of brain tissue destroyed.

• Brenda Milner (1928-): British-Canadian psychologist who studied memory in patients with brain damage. Study on H.M.,,,Patient from Connecticut suffering unexpected memory loss after surgery by having areas in the hippocampus removed. Hippocampus involves encoding explicit memories. Not implicit. Considered a pioneer of cognitive neuroscience.

• Roger Sperry (1913-1994): American psychologist who won the 1981 Nobel Prize for his research on split-brain patients. Sperry wondered whether the connections within the brain might also be hardwired. Severed the corpus callosum, Found a behavior that the animal learned to perform with only one side of its body didn't transfer over to the other side. Both sides showed similar learning curves

• Harry Harlow (1905-1981): Nature of Love. American comparative psychologist best known for his studies on the effects of social isolation in monkeys. The baby monkey was provided with two ‘mothers’ one a co.d metal frame with a bottle of milk, and the other a warm, cloth covered frame that provided no milk. Spent most of their time clinging to the warm cloth mother

• (Harry Harlow) Ethology: The study of animal behavior in natural settings.

• Koran Lorenz (1903-1989): An Austrian ethologist best known for his studies of imprinting in birds. (Koran Lorenz) Imprinting, In Geese: A behavioral phenomenon in which a newly hatched chick identifies the first moving object as its mothers. Discovered that baby geese would imprint on multiple other objects

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Chapter 16: Neuroscience

• Behavioral Neuroscience: The study of the brain processes underlying motivation and learning

• Richard Thompson (1930-2014): American behavioral neuroscientist who isolated the engram and demonstrated the role of the cerebellum in learning and memory.Karl Lashley was his hero. Published a research article “The Neurobiology of Learning and Memory” in the journal science (1986), providing evidence that…He’d trace the neural pathway of a conditioned response from sensory inputs to motor output, including the exact location that linked the stimulus with the response…This engram was situated in the interpositus nucleus of the cerebellum.

• (Richard Thompson) Cognitive Neuroscience: The study of the brain processes underlying memory and attention

• Endel Tulving: (1927-): Estonian-Canadian psychologist who advocated for episodic memory as a separate memory system. Procedural memory and Semantic memory. Wrote Elements of Episodic Memory (1983), Proposed a third distinction- … Episodic memory- the recollection of personal experiences. Maintained that each type of memory was associated with a different sort of consciousness. (Table 16.1)

• (Endel Tulving) Affective Neuroscience: Study of the brain processes underlying emotion which holds promise to provide answers to important questions regarding mental health and disease

• Richard Lazarus (1922-2002): American psychologist who developed the transactional model of stress. The transactional model of stress is the proposal that stress is moderated by cognitive appraisal of the situation. In Psychological Stress and the Coping Process (1966), the APPRAISAL TAKES PLACE IN TWO STAGES--Primary appraisal involves an assessment of the potential effect of the stressful situation on the individual--Secondary appraisal involves an assessment of our ability to cope with the stressful event

• In stress, Appraisal, and Coping (1984), Lazarus and Folkman distinguished two types of coping: When people believe they have control over the situation, they engage in problem-focused coping, which is a direct attempt to solve the problem. However when people believe they have no control over the situation, they use in emotion-focused coping. This gave inspiration to third wave of neuroscience, affective neuroscience

• Jaak Panksepp (1943-2017) Estonian-American who founded the field of affective neuroscience. “The Rat-Tickler”. Believed that emotions arose from deep within the mammalian brain. Found that could elicit two types of attack modes in rats, depending on the deep brain region he stimulated.

• (Jaak Panksepp) Developed the opioid hypothesis: The conjecture that the formation of social attachment and contact comfort is mediated by endogenous opioids.