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Social Science: Term for academic disciplines that study human societies and social relationships (history, civics)

Behavioural sciences: Includes the study of people

• Anthropology, psychology, sociology

• Inquiry/observation and experimentation

Needs for Social Science Studies:

1. Objectivity

2. Relevance

3. Validitity

Bias: Type of writing FOR or AGAINST something. Multiple ways an author can reveal their bias.

Slanted language and evidence: Words, images only showing one side (pos or neg). Distorts reality and ignores different points of view.

I.e. Awesome, Horrid

Exaggeration or highly emotional statements: Language that appeals to strong emotions. Tone words determine approval or disapproval

I.e. Saving, Killing, Worse, Best

Name Calling: Use belittleing, degrading, or negative names for disapproval

I.e. Evil, Lousy, Liar, Failure

Linguistic Bias: Using discriminatory language

I.e First Nations described as “roaming” or “wandering”

Stereotyping: Actions of one as everybody in a group

Opinions stated as facts: Proof that is not inherently true

Unreality: Ignoring the existence of racism, sexism, etc…

Inquiry Process

1. Identify problem or question

2. Develop hypothesis (A hypothesis with no relation is called a null hypothesis)

3. Gather data - Use research methods like case studies, surveys, experiments, observations, and interviews

4. Analyze the data - Qualitative and Quantitative

• Separate data into relevant and irrelevant

• Organize data into a clear format

• Analyze how it supports thesis or not

1. Draw conclusions

• Supports hypothesis

• Some evidence to support the hypothesis

• Does not support hypothesis

• Supports alternate hypothesis

Physical Anthropology

Understand and define the physical and biological nature of human beings (we are primates). Genetic differences between humans and primates are only 1-2%.

Study humans as biological organisms to differentiate them from other species. Some study the origins of humans, some study similarities and differences among humans today.

Work with fossils, artefacts, and lots of physical evidence.

Charles Darwin proposed that no two members of a species are alike due to variations caused by inheritance and the environment.

Raymond Dart found a species of human that lived up to 30 million years ago in Africa, a skull and a fossilized brain. Named the species australopithecus afrensis.

Had an unbalanced head, narrow shoulders, wide chest, wide waist, shorter legs, long toes, and almost no foot arch.

Mary and Louis Leakey found evidence that the oldest human beings lived in Africa, due to findings in Tanzania. Found many more hominid remains.

Donald Johanson found the skeleton of an early human named Lucy.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN HUMANS AND PRIMATES

• Opposable thumbs

• Binocular vision

• Highly developed brain

• Children are dependent on parents for longer

• Social creatures

• Aggressive and territorial

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HUMANS AND PRIMATES

• Bipedalism

• Ability to communicate complex ideas and such through language

How did humans become human?

Possible evolving to use tools and language due to aggressive and war-like traits early on. Can also be due to living in groups of other people, making use of social skills to improve memory, learning, etc.

Humaness: Quality or state to be a human

Forensic Anthropology

Using DNA to help identify culprits. Used for crime and evidence in murder. Mitochondrial DNA is used most often as it stays in condition longer after a person has died to be used for identification.

Cultural Anthropology

Study of how culture shapes human behaviour. Research and knowledge are based on observation.

Ethnocentrism: Tendency to judge other cultures based on one's own values

Cultural Relativism: Attitude of respect and acceptance of other cultures in how they have developed ways to survive, etc.

Five branches of Anthropology

Archaeology: Cultural anthropology of the past

Applied anthropology: Action-oriented cultural anthropology used to solve current-day problems

Anthropological linguistics: Study of language

Ethnology: Study and comparison of past and contemporary cultures

Ethnography: In-depth description of a particular culture

Culture: A system of beliefs, values or assumptions about life shared and taught through a group of people

Subcultures: Shares characteristics of the overall culture, but has individualised ideas and behaviours, some voluntary and some not

• there are two components of culture: material and non-material

  • material: all physical objects that are created by humans and are given meaning

  • non-material: non-physical things (thoughts, beliefs, language, religion, rules, customs, skills, family patterns, gender roles, political systems, etc.)

• While all cultures vary, and in some cases they vary greatly, all cultures share the same eight common elements:

  • politics

  • economics

  • family

  • communication

  • recreation and leisure

  • war

  • knowledge and beliefs

  • material culture

Margaret Mead conducted an experiment in various cultures to see if all gender roles were innate or cultural. This supported the idea that culture influences human behaviour more than nature. Two cultures she looked at were: Mudagumor (Boys and girls are hostile), Tchambuli (Women are tough, men are passive (Excluded from training))

Culture types based on the economy

Foraging Cultures: Find and hunt for your own food in small bands

Horticultural Cultures: used tools to grow more abundance of food

Agricultural Cultures: Working the land intensively, using techniques not developed in horticulture (fertilisation, irrigation methods)

Pastoral Cultures: Domesticating animals, groups move with the herd

Industrial Cultures: Lots of technology is used for an immensely growing population, the growth of science, and destroying the environment

Communication-Based cultures: Growth of mass media and computers for reliance on technology

Rite-of-Passage: Turning point or important event in a culture (Marriage, high school graduation, baptism, etc)

Features for a rite of passage: Separation, Transition, Incorporation

Folkways: Everyday manners and etiquette

Norms: Accepted ways of behaving and acting towards others

Franz Boas

Biography: Who are they? (i.e., background information) Son of Germanic Jewish parents Anthropologist, ethnologist, folklorist, linguist Born 9 July 1858 in Germany, lived till 80 Received a PhD in physics and geography at Kiel University in 1881 Mentor to many other renowned anthropologists (Britannica 2007)
Contributions: What have they contributed to the field of Anthropology? Argued that all cultures have different and diverse customs and should be understood on their own terms (cultural relativism) Rejecting the idea of scientific racism, he brought a definition to what defines a human's differences, which can be due to culture, environment, and history This statement eventually overshadowed other racist, biased studies (Britannica 2007) Active opposer to the idea of European cultural superiority, often used as justification for imperialism back in the day Called his concept cultural variation (The Canadian Encyclopedia, Preston, 2008)
Impact: What is their impact? Discarded the idea of racial bias, especially in a field such as anthropology Mentor to many future remarkable anthropologists (Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead). His ideas contribute to modern views on equality and discrimination (The Canadian Encyclopedia, Preston 2008)
Key Discoveries: What discoveries have they made and how do their discoveries contribute to the understanding of humans or society? Documented myths, legends, and the language of groups of Indigenous peoples in North America Looked at the size of a human head as a child vs as an adult to determine that they varied greatly. Proved that race didn’t determine appearance and should not be assumed as such. Determined how we adapt to an environment isn’t only geographically based but also culturally based (Britannica 2007)

Ruth Benedict

Biography: Who are they? (i.e. background information) Born June 5 1887 - Sept 17 1948 American anthropologist Student of Franz Boas, spread his ideas even further (Britannica 2012)
Contributions: What have they contributed to the field of Anthropology? Argued that the portion of how human behaviour is incorporated is actually very small, that it is the personality, what defines the individuals Wrote lots of books providing scientific research against racism Further enhanced concept of cultural relativism Learnt about Japanese people helping the U.S to understand their behaviours, avoid Nazis (Britannica 2012)
Impact: What is their impact? One of the first women to make an impactful contribution to anthropology Well known for cultural relativism Proved women can have a fresh and unique approach in predominately male scientific fields. (Britannica 2012)
Key Discoveries: What discoveries have they made and how do their discoveries contribute to the understanding of humans or society? Studied 3 different tribes and how much variety there was in their cultures Relativity of normality: How norman and abnormal behaviours can culturally be defined not universally. People that do not meet that culture’s stereotype are stigmatized In her book Races of Mankind, she argued that racial superiority was a mere cultural construction not a scientific fact (Britannica 2012)

Margaret Mead

Biography: Who are they? (i.e. background information) Born Dec 16, 1901 - Nov 15 1978 Both her parents were teachers Impacted greatly by Franz Boas the father of American anthropology and Ruth Benedict (Britannica 2019)
Contributions: What have they contributed to the field of Anthropology? Supported the idea of cultural determinism, that culture shaped human behaviour more than biology Cultural conditioning of sexual behaviour, natural character and culture change Traversed into typically avoided topics such as women’s rights, workers' rights and childbearing Understood that gender norms weren’t genetic, as gender norms were always different in different communities (Britannica 2019)
Impact: What is their impact? Wrote a book on cultural determinism, further spreading her ideas Lots of magazine appearances, lectures and television appearances allowing her to share more of her findings Received an award after her death, the Presidential Medal of Freedom (Britannica 2019)
Key Discoveries: What discoveries have they made and how do their discoveries contribute to the understanding of humans or society? Found that in certain societies, men were more passive while women were assertive, suggesting that gender roles are heavily based on culture Truly emphasised how culture was more influential than our biology in terms of human behaviour, leading to the idea of nature vs nurture (Britannica 2019)

Louis and Mary Leakey

Biography: Who are they? (i.e. background information) Louis Leakey: 1903 - 1972 Mary Leakey: 1913 - 1996 The whole family is known for being archaeologists and palaeontologists Louis Leakey grew up in Kenya with British parents Mary Leakey continued to make more discoveries after her husband's passing (Leakey Foundation 2024)
Contributions: What have they contributed to the field of Anthropology? Discovered human remains in East Africa, leading to a major realisation of our evolution They found a million-year-old hominid for the first time ever Mary discovered a skull belonging to the Proconsul Africanus, which proved to be an ancestor of apes and early humans 25 million years ago Louis found remains of Kenyapithecus, establishing the connection between apes and humans After Louis’s death, Mary discovered Laetoli footprints in a volcano, proving that the hominid walked upright (Leakey Foundation 2024)
Impact: What is their impact? The Leakeys together compiled a very tangible timeline of the evolution of humans This evidence led to a better understanding of the conditions leading to certain traits being adopted in our early human ancestors, which are still passed on today Their work in Africa challenged the presumption that most of our early human ancestors came to be in Asia (Britannica 2022)
Key Discoveries: What discoveries have they made and how do their discoveries contribute to the understanding of humans or society? Their fossil finds proved that our early human ancestors had certain ways to extend their survival by creating tools, walking upright… Bipedal humans were now existing much farther back than most would have thought Various amounts of evidence leading to the understanding of our evolution (Britannica 2022)

Jane Goodall

Biography: Who are they? (i.e. background information) April 3, 1934 - October 1, 2025 Was always interested in animal behaviour at a young age Connection to Louis Leakey allowed her to witness chimpanzees and their behaviours Obtained a PhD in Ethology without even needing her A.B. degree (Jane Goodall Institute 2015)
Contributions: What have they contributed to the field of Anthropology? Her years-long chimpanzee study brought about many comparisons between the lives of humans and chimpanzees (differences + similarities) For example, chimpanzees are able to create tools and are omnivores They also have very complex social structures, as they also have very complex emotions like us humans She was also an activist, inspiring other scientists and anthropologists Worked with the UN and created her own institution (Britannica 2018)
Impact: What is their impact? Several foundations made to help the community Chimpanzees and both humans have complex social structures and can hold very important bonds with other people, proving that they also have very high levels of thinking like us humans (Jane Goodall Institute 2015)
Key Discoveries: What discoveries have they made and how do their discoveries contribute to the understanding of humans or society? Discovered chimps were omnivores, as sometimes they would hunt small mammals to eat, unlike before, where they were assumed to be herbivores They would sometimes fight with other species and were aggressive and territorial just like humans; sometimes even killing other chimps (Jane Goodall Institute 2015)

Herbert Spencer

Biography: Who are they? (i.e. background information) April 27 1820-December 8 1903 Sociologist and philosopher (anthropologist) Was mostly self taught Worked as a civil engineer for a period of his life (Brittanica 2018)
Contributions: What have they contributed to the field of Anthropology? Believed that societies continue to increase through labour transitioning in groups to complex civilisations. Compared other animals to humans and deduced that civilisation and societies exist to benefit the members of that group Emphsaized individualism, advocating to limit power so that people were able to make their own decisions for themselves (Brittanica 2018)
Impact: What is their impact? Widely acknowledged for the term “survival of the fittest” Used the term “Social Darwinism”, applying concepts of evolution and natural selection to human society instead Saw how societies evolved from large amounts of labour from simple to complex, and whether societal cooperation is optional or not in a certain type of society (Brittanica 2018)
Key Discoveries: What discoveries have they made and how do their discoveries contribute to the understanding of humans or society? Societies work with different parts supporting one another Civilizations evolve from simple to complex Shared his values of independence and individualism, especially about how the government should have less control of people, leaving them to live their own lives (Brittanica 2018)

Theoretical Psychology - Understand the rules that truly human thinking/behaviour

Clinical Psychology - Use understanding of mental processes and actions to study emotions to

help those with psychological problems.

Branches of Psychology

Structuralism:

• William Wundt, 1800’s

• Focused on the inner workings of the mind through reflection and introspection (carefully controlled and detailed observations of the mind)

• Experiments of sensation, perception and attention

Functionalism:

• William James, mid 1800’s to 1900’s

• Determined mental characteristics were like physical characteristics, aka natural selection (survival)

• Study development of children, difference between men and women, how learning can improve

Psychoanalysis:

• Sigmund Freud, Late 1800’s to 1900’s

• Uncover patients unconscious thoughts through discussion with a psychologist

• Freud concluded problems with the nervous system stemmed from the unconscious, not physical

Behaviourism:

• John Watson, Late 1800’s to mid 1900’s

• Same-ish time as Freud's conductions of his own experiments

• Determined that only what we observed was truly scientific, such as behaviour

• Mind is not considered scientific as we cannot observe what goes on in the mind

• Believed all behaviour was response to environmental stimuli

Humanism:

• 1950s, made to combat popular ideologies like psychoanalysis and behaviourism

• Focus on quality of human beings, freedom and potential to grow

• Believed human beings were not driven by things like behaviour and such, argued we had control over all of our actions

Cognitive psychology:

• Popular 1950s onward

• Mental processes such as memory, learning and thinking

• Focus on researching the brain, monitors brain waves and signals during certain activities like sleeping, laughing, etc

Types of work by psychologists:

• Research psychology

• Applied psychology

• Clinical psychology

Types of Learning

• Conditioned learning: Learning certain behaviours due to the presence of an environmental stimulus (Classical and Operant conditioning)

• Classical Conditioning: Learning the association between a stimulus and its response

• Operant Conditioning: Learning the association between a behaviour and its consequences

• CP: Pavlov’s dog experiment: stimulated the dog with food (unconditioned), created an association between food and the bell to make a conditioned response

• OP: Skinner’s box: Put a rat in a cage that would obtain food pellets through pushing a button. Eventually, the rat figured that out and would press the button whenever it wanted a food pellet

• Observational learning: Learning certain behaviours through observing and watching other role models

Motivation

• Bandura’s theory of motivation:

• Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation

• Two kinds of motivation, biological and social

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Physiological, Safety, Love, Esteem, Cognitive, Aesthetic, Self-Fulfilment, and Transcendence

• Found that those from the Siksika nation were already born with self-fulfilment and were already accepted as members of the community

• Alfred Adler focused on self-improvement, the need to be productive in society, and thought birth order influenced their motivation.

First Born: High levels of parental attention, expected to be responsible, ambitious and perfect.

Second Born: Expected to compete with other sibling, attempt to surpass them. Sociable, adaptive and rebellious.

Third Born: Pampered by family, outgoing and charming but struggle with independency.

Only Children: Remain center of attention, perfectionists with high self esteem, but struggle to share or cooperate with others

Twins: To avoid competition they attempt to individualize as much as possible, one twin might like athletics and the arts, with the other the sciences and math.

Conscious: What you are aware of

Preconscious: Memories you aren’t actively thinking about but can recall

Unconscious: Repressed instincts that still affect our behaviour

Id: Unconscious, seeks pleasure

Ego: Conscious, Rational

Superego: Unconscious, mediator of the two

Oral stage (0 to 12-18 months): Baby is obsessed with sucking or oral stuff. IF neglected, the baby grows up frustrated, if overindulge baby grows up gullible

Anal stage (12-18 months to 3): The toddler learns to potty train, conflict between when it is appropriate to release feces. Id will encourage releasing feces, ego will tell to hold it until bathroom.

Phallic stage (3 to 6 years): Libidal energy focused on genitals. Emergence of Oedipus and Electra complexes.

Latency stage (6 to puberty): Learns to repress libido.

Genital stage (puberty to adulthood): Libidal energy focused on genitals again, interests in sexual relationships. If the partner is stuck on the last few stages, the relationship will suffer.

Defense mechanisms: Compensation, Daydreaming, Denial, Displacement (focusing frustration on someone less scary than you), Identification (taking the role of others), Minimizing, Projection, Rationalization (justifying bad behaviour), Reaction formation (believing in opposite belief cuz true belief makes u anxious), Regression (becoming immature), Sublimation (doing socially unacceptable things in an accepted way)

Intelligence

Logical-Mathematical: Excels in math, abstract reasoning, and scientific problem-solving.

Verbal-Linguistic: Strong proficiency with words, reading, writing, and storytelling.

Visual-Spatial: Strong visualization skills, spatial awareness, and ability to mentally manipulate objects.

Musical-Rhythmic: Sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and musical expression.

Bodily-Kinesthetic: High physical coordination, hands-on learning, and body awareness.

Interpersonal: Highly empathetic, excellent at reading nonverbal cues, and skilled at managing social dynamics.

Intrapersonal: Deep self-awareness, introspection, and understanding of personal motivations.

Naturalistic: Deep connection to nature, environmental awareness, and the ability to recognize patterns in the ecosystem.

Existential (Proposed): The capacity to tackle deep philosophical questions regarding human existence, life, and death.

Sensation

Process in which sense receptors are activated; refers to sight, smell, touch, sound, taste. Through your senses in which you receive information.

Tongue map: Sweet in the front, Sour and Salty on the sides, Bitter in the back.

Perception

Process of interpreting information that you receive from sensation.

Your analysis of the world around you, but can sometimes make you think close mindedly and perceive things from only your perspective neglecting the perspective of others.

Can induce selective memory; only remembering what is pleasurable vs those unpleasurable are blocked. Certain objects are also more attractive than others, inducing you to notice and perceive them, for example something loud and cranky.

Memory

Ability to acquire, retain and recall information.

Episodic memory: Recalling events from a specific past experience

Semantic memory: Knowledge of how the world works but you haven’t actually experienced it

Sensory memory: Memory received through the five senses

Short-term memory: Memory stored for 15-20 seconds. If you work more with memory, it will stay in your short-term memory longer or become long-term memory. Can store up to 7 unorganised items plus or minus 2. Can remember more if organised, and we lose memory due to decay.

Long-term memory: Meaningful memory that is longer than 15-20 seconds can be lost until ur entire lifetime. Compared to the workings of a library.

To improve memory: Give it meaning, Organise information, Spread practice over several sessions, learn actively, transfer learning from other areas, recitation, visualisation, and improve recall.

Thinking

4 types of thinking

Developing concepts: creating a category of ideas that share similar characteristics.

Reasoning:

Deductive reasoning - Take a general principle and apply it to a specific situation

Inductive reasoning - Take a specific principle and apply it to a general situation

Dialetical reasoning - Evaluate two or more alternative points of view

Problem solving:

• Define the problem

• Develop a strategy

• Carry out the strategy

• Determine if strategy worked or not

Decision making:

• Determine the alternatives

• Evaluate the alternatives

• Make a decision

• Act

• Reflect

Sleep

• ⅓ of life is spent sleeping

• Teenagers need 9-9.5 hours of sleep

• Boys with shorter sleep get more injuries

• Girls with shorter sleep get more missed school

• Loud snoring sign of sleep apnea

• Delay in the internal clock for teenagers sleep cycle

NREM SLEEP: 75 - 80% of sleep, lowers blood pressure, quiet sleep.

Stage one is minutes long and very light sleep

Stage two is 50% of your sleep, deeper sleep

Stage three is a few minutes long, deeper sleep, growth hormone released

Stage four is 40 minutes long, deepest sleep, growth hormone secreted

REM SLEEP: 20-25% of sleep, rapid eye movement, epinephrine (adrenaline), paralyzed limbs, rising blood temperature, vivid dreams, heart rate and respiration faster and more irregular.

Most people sleep about 5 sleep cycles.

Sleep disorders: Obstructive sleep apnea, narcolepsy, Periodic limb movements and Restless leg syndrome

Emotions

Factors that influence our emotions: Heredity, Maturity, Learning

Primary (our pure emotions) Blended (primary emotions can combine to create other emotions)

Acceptance Submission (acceptance + fear)

Fear Awe (fear + surprise)

Surprise Disappointment (surprise + sadness)

Sadness Remorse (sadness + disgust)

Disgust Contempt (disgust + anger)

Anger Aggressiveness (anger + anticipation)

Anticipation Optimism (anticipation + joy)

Joy Love (joy + acceptance)

Stress

Eustress: Healthy/good kind of stress

Adaptation to stress: Alarm stage, Resistance stage, Exhaustion stage

Mental Illness

Just be able to differentiate phobias, mood disorders, personality disorders, schizophrenia etc.

Sociology: The study of people in groups

Social Psychology: Study of individuals within their groups and social settings

Structural Functionalism: Various segments of society serve a purpose for society as a whole.

Family - Raise children, provide emotional bonds

School - Teach children knowledge and skills

Social problems are temporary

Different Approaches to Sociology

Conflict Theory:

Power holds society together. People in society are naturally competitive.

Symbolic Interactionism:

How individuals learn about their culture. People are motivated by what they learn.

Feminist Sociology:

Understanding the social roles of both genders in different cultures. Women and inequalities. Bring change socially and politically.

Socialization

Socialization: The process in which individuals learn the ways of society and their culture etc.

Agents of Socialization: Types of contacts that influence socialization

Five main types of socialization, but can be more

• Family (Most significant)

• Peers

• School

• Culture

• Media

Personality

Freud believed that the unconscious mind was most significant in developing a personality. However, socialization is what develops the ego and superego in order to counter the id.

Piaget found four stages in the cognitive development of children.

Sensorimotor stage (Birth - Age 2): Babies experience the world through their senses, with no thoughts.

Pre-operational stage (Age 2 - 7): Children experience the world mentally through speech and communication. Cannot see things from other people's point of view, however.

Concrete-operational stage (7 - 11): Children can do complex operations like math and measurements if physical objects are present. Can think from other people’s points of view.

Formal-operational stage (adolescence): Can manipulate ideas without physical objects being present. Can use logic and think abstractly.

Charles Hooten Cooley believed that the sense of self or identity is derived from others.

George Herbert Mead found that the self for children develops through interaction with others. Through the preparatory stage (imitation), the play stage (act roles of adults), and the game stage (discover rules and roles in society).

Erik Erikson believed that identity developed entirely through the whole lifetime.

Infancy and childhood (0-11 yrs): Relationships with friends, family, and to develop emotionally, intellectually, physically, and socially.

Adolescence (11-18 yrs): Young person tries to find personal identity, good self-esteem vs bad self-esteem

Early adulthood (18 - 25 yrs): Forming close, lasting relationships and commitment to a career choice.

Middle adulthood (25-50 yrs): Individuals try to become productive and accomplish something worthwhile.

Late adulthood (50+ yrs): Seniors should try to pursue projects they were unable to do when younger. This is the time for power and prestige, peaking in careers and retiring.

Family

Nuclear family: One or two parents with unmarried children living together

Extended family: Relatives in addition to the nuclear family living together

Blended or Reconstituted family: Parents with children from previous marriages

Childless family: A married couple

Single-Parent family: A parent with one or more children

Common-Law family: Unmarried couple with or without children

Types of Marriages

Free-Choice: Partners have a say in who they wed

Arranged: Partners set up together by another party

Types of Roles in the Family

Conventional roles: A woman works as a housewife with children, a man works outside the home.

Shared roles: Both partners work outside the home and share responsibilities. The woman still takes primary household responsibilities.

Dual-Career roles: Both parents have permanent career roles, and responsibilities are divided more equally.

Deviance

Mores: norms involving ethical or moral judgments i.e. telling lies or cheating

Laws: formal rules enforced by designated individuals within a society i.e. stealing, rape, murder, etc.

Conformity: Following accepted rules and behaviour in society

Deviance: Behaviour that differs from the norm in a society. Changes based on the situation i.e. physical assault is wrong, but if enacted in self-defense, it is excused

Causes of Deviance

Biological theory: Brain functioning or genetics causing deviance

Psychological theory: Deviance is a result of early experiences, psychological problems and personality

Sociological theory: Learned response to the environment

• Motivational – believe it is the result of people being encouraged to achieve but not having the tools to succeed

• Learning – believe it is a result of observing and learning from others

• Control – believe it is a result of the absence of social control and if the rewards for such behaviour are more certain than the punishment

• Labeling – believe it is a result of automatically defining or “labeling” people in a particular way

Social Control: Methods used to ensure conformity

Informal control: Occurs in everyday actions with others describing what is wrong or right. Often more effective than other forms of social control.

Formal control: Role in maintaining order is larger and more complex in societies such as the Criminal Justice System

Phil Zimbardo Experiment: Stanley Prison Experiment, putting adolescent males in an environment to simulate the workings of a prison.

Stanley Milgram Experiment: Assigned questions to a person, and if that person got it wrong, the administrator would have to give them an electric shock, increasing in voltage.

Solomon Asch Experiment: A group of people peer pressured another person into picking an answer that was clearly incorrect, but the other person chose it because everyone else did.

Gender

Gender Socialization: The process in which people should act in accordance with their gender, which is assigned in accordance with their biological sex.

Gender roles are sometimes reinforced by almost anything and anyone in society, which is wrong.

Social Class and Poverty

Ascribed status: a status that is assigned to an individual

Four major social classes

• Wealthy upper class 3-5%

• Middle class 40-50%

• Working class 30%

• The poor 20%

Absolute poverty: Lack of any essential resources

Relative poverty: Comparison of someone’s standard of living to the national standard of living

The working poor: Low-income families that can not afford any luxuries, minimum wage

The homeless: Young, Unskilled, Alcoholic or Drug dependent, mentally ill…

Who is at risk of poverty?

• Young people

• Single-Parent Families

• Women

• Older people/Workers

• People with Disabilities

• Children

• Certain Regions of the Country