Britain and India 1845–1947: Comprehensive Markdown Notes

Chapter 1: The Subcontinent 1800–1900

• Overview context: The period sets up nationalist movements and the governance framework that would shape the later struggle for independence. Key landmark point: the late 1940s deliver independence, but the 1800–1900 arc builds the geographies, demographies, religions, languages, and political actors that make nationalism possible.

• Geography and regional structure

  • The Indian subcontinent (South Asia) spans a vast landmass comparable to Europe, with three major geographical zones:
  • Indo-Gangetic plain: fertile arc running through the Indus (now in Pakistan) and down the Ganges, core to historical rulers.
  • The Himalayas to the north (tectonic collision zone) shaping invasions and political borders.
  • The Deccan plateau and southern ghats; coastal strips enabling ports and trade.
  • Capitals of historic India (Delhi, Calcutta/Kolkata) sit within the Indo-Gangetic arc.
  • Language and power: Persian ( Mughal era) as official language; British rule later uses English; independence leads to language policy changes (Hindi in India; Urdu in Pakistan; Bengali in other regions).
  • Religion and demographics: regionally variable religious landscapes; Hinduism central but Islam, Sikhism, Buddhism present in various pockets; Dravidian languages in the south; Indo-European languages in the north with Aryan influx; linguistic boundaries later influence provincial restructurings.

• Demography and social structure

  • Hindu society: dharma as religious duties; caste (varna) system with four broad orders: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras; jatis as occupational groupings; Untouchables (Dalits) subject to oppression and reform needs.
  • Key terms: polytheistic religion; caste; dharma; jati.
  • Social complexity: over 2000 castes (jatis) existed; caste influenced marriage, occupation, and public life; religious reform and nationalist movements intersected with caste dynamics.

• Major religious and political communities

  • Mughals: north-west hub of Mughal power; Islam as state-linked culture; Persian as court language; gradual decline after Aurangzeb (d. 1707).
  • Marathas: regional power in the Western Ghats; proto-nationalist potential; Hyderabad as a major princely state in later periods.
  • Sikhs: fusion of Hindu and Muslim traditions in Punjab; Amritsar as holy city; martial organisation and distinct identity.
  • East India Company (EIC): chartered in 1600; fortified factories at Bombay, Madras, Calcutta; private army; expansion during 18th century; Clive and the conquest of Bengal; corruption and corruption trials (e.g., Warren Hastings).

• The East India Company: governance and strategic expansion

  • The EIC expanded to dominate the Gangetic plain by 1818; administrative divisions into three presidencies: Calcutta, Bombay, Madras; 1833 reform made the Governor-General of Fort William the Governor-General of India.
  • Interventions justified by “civilizing mission” rhetoric (White Man’s Burden) and administrative efficiency; early reforms included abolition of sati (1829) and suppression of thuggee (1837).
  • Education and culture: 1835 Macaulay Minute advocated English-language education to create a Western-educated Indian middle class; this contributed to nationalist consciousness later.

• Economic and infrastructural modernization under colonial rule

  • Railways and telegraphs built as instruments of governance and economic integration; later used to circulate newspapers and mobilize nationalist opinion.
  • Economic drive tied to imperial trade: export of raw materials (cotton, jute, tea) and import of manufactured goods; new urban middle class grows in Indian cities.

• Imperial policy and social reform in the 19th century

  • White Man’s Burden: paternalistic justification for expansion; emphasis on civilizational mission and Christian missionary activity.
  • Dalhousie’s annexation policy (1848–56): states without heirs were annexed; broadened British territory and governance footprint.

• Internal reform and resistance

  • Sati banned in 1829; Thuggee suppression largely complete by 1837.
  • Education reforms and the Aligarh movement later stress modernisation and Muslim political self-regard.
  • The Ilbert Bill (1883) attempted to ensure Indian judges could preside over cases involving Europeans; provoked strong European opposition and a ‘white mutiny’ sentiment; catalyzed nationalist thought.

• Congress and nationalist developments (late 19th century)

  • Formation of the Congress Party (1885) as a forum for educated Indians to lobby for greater inclusion in governance; Indian Councils Act (1892) expanded Indian participation modestly.
  • Renaissance in Indian society: growth of secular education; entry of Indians into civil service; Aligarh movement (1875) pushes for Muslim educational reform and political representation; 1905 Partition of Bengal triggers mass protests and the rise of Swadeshi (boycott of British goods), setting template for later mass movements.

• Key debates and themes

  • Imperial governance vs. self-government: early British policy considered gradual reform and “protectorate-like” quasi-sovereignty while maintaining overall imperial control.
  • Communal and religious sensitivities: partition-era tensions and reform debates will later contribute to the demand for separate electorates and, ultimately, partition in 1947.
  • Indian nationalism evolves from elite to mass politics through education, press, and political organisations.

• Key dates (selected)

  • 1600: Charter granted to East India Company by Elizabeth I.
  • 1857: Indian Mutiny (First War of Independence) begins.
  • 1858: Crown takes control; end of East India Company rule; Crown rule established.
  • 1875: Foundation of Aligarh College.
  • 1877: Queen Victoria declared Empress of India.
  • 1883: Ilbert Bill controversy.
  • 1885: Formation of the Indian National Congress.
  • 1892: Indian Councils Act.
  • 1919: Amritsar Massacre; formative violence; governance debates.

• Summary connections to later chapters

  • The administrative and political framework laid in the 19th century informs the late-Imperial era’s constitutional reforms (1909, 1919, 1935) and the rise of mass politics under Gandhi in the 20th century.
  • Social reform, education, and the growth of the Indian middle class create a pool of leaders and publics who would later demand decolonization and constitutional changes.

Chapter 2: Discontent to Outrage 1901–19

• Chapter focus and framing: The turn of the century intensifies administrative reordering, nationalist awakening, and religious-political mobilization. Curzon’s viceroyalty demonstrates how policy decisions can sharpen religious and linguistic fault lines, while reform acts attempt to incorporate Indians into governance in a limited fashion.

• Key turning points and themes

  • Curzon’s frontier and administrative reforms (1901–1905)
  • Frontier policy: creation of North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) as a buffer against Russia; strategic concerns in the Great Game; expansion to Jammu & Kashmir.
  • Education and archaeology: protection of monuments; cultural policy to display British modernity.
  • Railways and irrigation expansion; agricultural and revenues development; central department of agriculture.
  • Partition of Bengal (1905) and Simla Delegation (1906)
  • Part of a “divide and rule” strategy to weaken Bengali political unity; Bengal partition creates strong Hindu nationalist resentments and Muslim political concerns.
  • Simla delegation of 1906 marks Congress’s attempts to engage with the reform agenda; Morley–Minto reforms take shape (1909) including separate electorates for Muslims and other groups.
  • Ilbert Bill controversy (1883) and its long-term implications
  • Europeans in India resist a justice system where Indians could judge Europeans; public backlash reveals racial hierarchies and eroding trust between ruling elites and educated Indians.
  • The Indian Renaissance and reform initiatives
  • Entry into ICS (Indian Civil Service) expands slowly; education expansions feed an Indian middle class; Aligarh movement (1875) fosters Muslim nationalism and calls for separate political representation; Ilbert Bill controversy heightens nationalist anger toward colonial legal supremacy.
  • Nationalist institutions and the Congress (1885 onward)
  • Congress evolves from an elitist forum to a national political party by 1890s; 1892 Indian Councils Act marginally expands Indian participation in local councils.
  • Language, religion, and communal politics as late-19th-century forces
  • Language issues: Hindi vs. Urdu; regional loyalties; religious revivalism (Hindu renaissance; Muslim defence associations in late 19th century).

• Impacts and implications

  • The period cements a pattern: reforms are incremental and often resisted; the British rely on divide-and-rule to manage burgeoning nationalist sentiment.
  • The emergence of a financially and administratively competent Indian middle class fosters nationalist critique of imperial governance and helps seed demand for self-rule.
  • The Bengal partition (1905) and subsequent reunification (1911) illustrate the volatility of communal politics and the British need to recalibrate governance strategies.

• Key dates (selected)

  • 1901: North-West Frontier Province created.
  • 1905: Partition of Bengal; Swadeshi and boycotts.
  • 1906: Simla delegation; beginnings of Muslim political assertion.
  • 1909: Morley–Minto reforms begin; separate electorates formalized.
  • 1911: Bengal reunified; Delhi becomes British capital.
  • 1914: Outbreak of the First World War reshapes imperial politics.
  • 1917: Montagu Declaration proposing gradual self-government.
  • 1919: Amritsar Massacre; Rowlatt Act; shift toward more radical nationalist activity.

• Key terms and concepts

  • Frontier policy; NWFP; Simla delegation; Ilbert Bill; Morley–Minto reforms; partition of Bengal; swadeshi; dyarchy (to be seen in 1919 Act).

• Connections to later developments

  • The 1905 partition and the growth of mass nationalist discourse feed into Gandhi’s mass-based campaigns in the 1920s. The Montagu Declaration (1917) foreshadows the later push for dominion status and eventual independence.

Chapter 3: Campaigns and Concession 1919–39

• Central character: Mahatma Gandhi; shift from elite politics to mass politics; non-violent direct action becomes the defining method; Gandhi’s moral appeal and strategic flexibility shape the nationalist movement.

• The two major strands: Congress reformism within British constitutional bounds and Muslim League political mobilization for a potential separate Muslim state.

• Major phases and episodes

  • Post-World War I reform era and the Montagu–Chelmsford reforms (1919–1921; enacted 1919) introducing dyarchy at the provincial level; limited Indian ministerial powers.
  • Gandhi and non-cooperation (1919–1921): a mass movement that rejects participation in certain colonial institutions; Chamfering of violence; the Salt March is a landmark civil-disobedience act (1930).
  • Gandhian campaigns and the Salt March (1930): non-violent civil disobedience against the salt tax; national mobilisation across castes and religions; the march becomes an internationally visible symbol of Indian struggle.
  • Gandhi–Irwin Pact (1931): a negotiated settlement allowing limited Congress participation in the Round Table talks; the pact suspends civil disobedience but demands concessions from the British.
  • Round Table Conferences (1930–1932) and the communal award (1932)
  • Communal Award introduces reserved seats for Muslims; Gandhi opposes this; tensions escalate among Hindus and Muslims; the Indian political landscape splits into moderate and extremist factions.
  • Third phase: Civil disobedience and the Government of India Act 1935
  • The 1935 Act expands provincial autonomy; but remains a British-controlled framework; diarchy ends; new constitutional path opens but remains limited in Indian self-government.
  • The emergence of constitutional nationalism and electoral politics (late 1930s)
  • The 1937 elections (under the 1935 Act) bring Congress-led provincial ministries to power in several provinces; Muslim League gains presence in Muslim-majority areas; Jinnah realigns strategy toward demand for Pakistan.

• Gandhi’s principles and rhetorical tools

  • Satyagraha: truth-force; reliance on non-violence, moral suasion, and self-suffering as political tools.
  • Ahimsa: non-violence as a political strategy enabling collective action without reciprocal violence; Swadeshi as an economic dimension emphasizing self-reliance; Khadi as symbol of self-help.
  • Swadeshi and Swadesh: boycotts of British goods; emphasis on home-made goods and self-reliance; Salt March symbolizes economic and political autonomy.

• British response and policy shifts

  • Cripps Mission (1942): attempt to secure India’s voluntary cooperation during WWII with a dominion-status plan and a possible federal arrangement; mission fails due to lack of confidence and ambiguities about defence and central authority.
  • The Lahore and Lucknow Conferences and the rise of the Muslim League as a strong political force with demands for minority protection and potential Pakistan.
  • The 1935 Government of India Act creates a dyarchy and a dual governance structure; the central and provincial governments share responsibilities in a limited fashion, but crucial powers remain reserved to the imperial center.

• Key dates (selected)

  • 1919–21: Non-cooperation campaigns led by Gandhi; mass protests and boycotts.
  • 1930: Salt March; march to Dandi; mass civil disobedience across India.
  • 1931: Gandhi–Irwin Pact; limited concessions for Congress; suspension of some civil-disobedience measures.
  • 1932: Communal Award; intensified Hindu–Muslim tensions; Khilafat movement’s influence wanes.
  • 1935: Government of India Act enacted; dyarchy; broader provincial autonomy.
  • 1937: Provincial elections; Congress forms ministries in several provinces; Muslim League gains ground in some regions.

• Key terms

  • Satyagraha, Ahimsa, Swadesh, Swadesh, Swaraj, Khilafat, Round Table Conference, Dyarchy, Purna Swaraj (emerges later but foreshadowed during this period).

• Exam-style connections and critical questions

  • How effective were Gandhi’s mass campaigns in achieving concrete constitutional gains by 1939? Consider both the expansion of political participation and the limits of autonomy under the 1935 Act.
  • To what extent did the Muslim League’s strategy in the 1930s set the stage for partition discussions in the 1940s?

Chapter 4: Quit India 1939–45

• Context: World War II redefines the political landscape in India. Britain’s wartime needs push for a more centralized and controlled approach; Indian nationalism pushes back with demands for rapid independence.

• Key episodes

  • War mobilization and the Gandhi-led civil disobedience movement during WWII; the Congress leadership demands immediate independence and refuses to participate in British wartime governance.
  • The Cripps Mission (1942): British attempt to secure cooperation and outline a postwar settlement; plan fails to secure broad Indian support; leaves Muslim League with leverage to press its own claims.
  • The Bengal famine (1943): human catastrophe that weakens British moral authority and fuels nationalist criticism; Wavell’s attempts to mitigate famine highlight administrative and ethical failures.
  • The Round Table Conferences (early 1930s) and subsequent pulsations in constitutional reform during wartime.
  • Gandhi’s Quit India resolution (August 1942): a mass call to leave India; it triggers massive arrests and police repression but also catalyzes ongoing nationalist activity.

• The Indian National Army (INA) and Axis connections

  • Subhas Chandra Bose’s leadership of the INA; collaboration with Axis powers; controversial yet significant for raising anti-British morale and challenging British authority; INA operations in Burma and Imphal; mixed military effectiveness but political impact on postwar negotiations.

• British responses and military/political strategy

  • Lockdown and suppression: mass arrests; emergency powers; censorship; repressive measures by viceroys (e.g., Linlithgow) to suppress dissent.
  • The Cripps mission’s failure deepens distrust; the war’s end raises questions about postwar settlement and immediate independence.

• Key dates (selected)

  • 1939: Start of World War II; India is drawn into the war without an explicit consent from Congress.
  • 1940: Lahore Resolution (Muslim League) advocating for a separate Muslim state or states.
  • 1942: Quit India resolution; Gandhi’s call for immediate independence; mass arrests follow.
  • 1943–44: INA activities; Bengal famine continues; Bengal famine waves influence postwar politics.
  • 1945–46: War ends; Mountbatten appointed viceroy to oversee a rapid transfer of power.

• Key terms

  • Cripps Mission, Quit India, INA, Bengal famine, Hartals, Civil disobedience, Round Table Conferences.

• Connections and implications

  • The WWII period marks a turning point: India’s demand for independence moves to the foreground; Britain’s willingness to negotiate with Indian leaders grows but remains constrained by wartime realities and postwar pressures.

Chapter 5: Independence and Partition 1945–7

• Context: After WWII, British resolve to exit India accelerates; however, rising communal violence and political deadlock between Congress and Muslim League force a hurried settlement.

• Key processes and events

  • 1945–46: British government faces political pressure; Cabinet Mission (1946) seeks to broker a constitutional framework that would satisfy both Congress and the Muslim League; Simla Conference attempts to implement the Cabinet Mission plan but fails.
  • Mountbatten Plan (1947): rapid transfer of power; Plan Balkan, the Menon Plan, and last-minute negotiations to decide borders and the status of princely states.
  • The Partition question: Pakistan emerges as a separate state; Punjab and Bengal partition lines become flashpoints; mass migrations and violence ensue; millions move across borders; hundreds of thousands die; religious cleansing figures loom large in narratives.
  • Accession and the princely states: Beginnings of the merger of hundreds of princely states into India and Pakistan; paramountcy and accession rules define the transfer of sovereignty.

• Boundary and transfer processes

  • Radcliffe Boundary Commission (1947): delineates the borders between India and Pakistan; the final line is announced after independence; controversial decisions around the Punjab and Bengal boundaries; a controversial allocation of areas like Gurdaspur and Ferozepur for India; the Andaman Islands become a postwar crosscut issue; border decisions shape regional power balances for decades.

• Political leadership and negotiations

  • Nehru and Patel lead the Congress into the political future; Jinnah pushes for Pakistan as a separate state; Gandhi remains a moral and spiritual figure but is sidelined in practical governance decisions.
  • The role of Mountbatten: last viceroy; negotiator; accelerates the transition; plan Balkan aims to localize decisions to provinces and princely states, while ensuring a clean exit for Britain.

• Post-independence arrangements

  • 15 August 1947: independence ceremony; two sovereign states; constitutional arrangements begin to take shape; the constitution of India is drafted later, culminating in the 1950 republic.
  • The princely states: most accede to either India or Pakistan; a few resist; accession is negotiated under pressure and political agreements.

• Key dates (selected)

  • 1945: Labour government elected; push for decolonization intensifies.
  • 1946: Cabinet Mission; Simla Conference; Pakistan demand gains traction.
  • 1947: Plan Balkan; independence for India and Pakistan; Mountbatten’s plan accelerates the exit; August 15, 1947: independence day; partition erupts into violence.

• Human consequences and the moral-ethical context

  • Massive population displacement; horrific massacres during migration; moral ambiguity around British role and timing of withdrawal.
  • The partition is remembered as a legacy of religious nationalism and political strategy; debates continue about the causal forces behind partition (colonial divide-and-rule vs. internal nationalist dynamics).

• Key terms

  • Partition, Accession, Princely states, Constituent Assembly, Federation, Dominions, Boundary commissions, Plan Balkan, Menon Plan.

• Notable figures and roles in this era

  • Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, Jinnah, Mountbatten, Linlithgow, Mountbatten; the roles of other leaders (Azad, Liaquat Ali Khan, Baldev Singh, etc.) in shaping the negotiating process.

• Key dates (selected)

  • 1947: Independence and partition; Radcliffe boundary commission announces borders; August 15, 1947: independence.
  • 1947–48: Accession processes and the integration of princely states into India and Pakistan.

Chapter 6: Surveying the Transfer of Power

• Core question: How did the imperial territorial transition morph into independent nation-states? What were the long-term institutional consequences and who bore responsibility for shaping the new states?

• Key themes

  • Our changing power dynamics: the British exit marks a transition from empire to a lasting but diminished influence; the Indian and Pakistani states begin to shape their domestic policies and international positions.
  • Gandhi and Churchill: their legacies—Gandhi’s moral leadership inspires a non-violent, mass-based political culture; Churchill’s imperialist instincts reveal the political tensions that ended empire.
  • Jinnah and Pakistan: the creation of Pakistan as a separate nation-state; the political and constitutional complexities surrounding Pakistan’s birth, including the role of the Muslim League and regional power balances.
  • Partition and its aftermath: mass migrations, violence, and the long-term political and economic consequences for both India and Pakistan.
  • The final constitution: India becomes a republic in 1950; the legal framework evolves to accommodate a diverse, multilingual, multi-religious democracy with a constitution that defines fundamental rights and the structure of the state.

• Summary observations

  • The transfer of power is characterized by pragmatic political negotiations, not heroic single events; it is a process that required balancing competing demands of national unity, minority protections, and regional autonomy.
  • The postcolonial state-building process in India and Pakistan is shaped by tumultuous beginnings but leads to enduring constitutional discourses, regional equilibria, and ongoing debates about identity and governance.

• Glossary and essential terms (selected)

  • Accession, Accession treaties, Boundary Commission, Constituent Assembly, Dyarchy, Dominion status, Federal government, Interim government, Plan Balkan, Menon Plan, Simla Conference, Partition, Princely states, Sovereign rights, self-government, Republic, Nakba-like mass displacement analogies, etc.

• Exam-style prompts and study strategies

  • Compare and contrast the approaches of Gandhi and Jinnah to independence and nation-building; discuss how each leader’s strategy affected outcomes in India and Pakistan.
  • Evaluate the extent to which the partition of British India was a product of external imperial pressures versus internal nationalist dynamics.
  • Assess the impact of the 1947 border decisions on the subsequent political and security landscape of South Asia.

• Cross-cutting themes across chapters

  • The tension between modernization and tradition: English-language education and bureaucratic modernization co-exist with social reform and religious revivalism.
  • The politics of legitimacy: crowns, emperors, and viceroys as symbolic rulers versus actual power holders; constitutional reforms gradually shift authority toward Indian actors, but power disputes persist through to 1947.
  • The problem of communal representation: separate electorates and later the Lahore/ Lucknow pact debates foreshadow Pakistan’s emergence and the partition’s centrality to South Asian political life.

• Final reflection

  • The period from 1800 to 1947 shows a long arc from imperial governance to a democratic, albeit contested, postcolonial order. The Indian subcontinent’s rich plurality—linguistic, religious, ethnic, and regional—required visionary leadership, pragmatic compromise, and, ultimately, painful compromises that defined the birth of two independent states and the modern political landscape of South Asia.

• Note on numerical and technical references (examples)

  • Population scales and large-scale transfers are frequently described as the world’s largest peacetime transit of power; a representative figure is the approximately 3.00 imes 10^8 people impacted by independence and partition processes.
  • Dates are often used as anchors for causal sequences (e.g., 1858 Crown control; 1947 independence; 1950 India becomes a republic).
  • Key legal instruments include the Government of India Act (1919, 1935) and the Independence and Partition frameworks (1947).

• How to use these notes for exam prep

  • Use top-level chapter headings to locate topics quickly.
  • For each chapter, identify the sequence of events (cause → action → consequence) and note how British policy interacted with Indian nationalist responses.
  • Compare Gandhi’s mass, non-violent campaigns with Jinnah’s demand for partition to understand how different strategies shaped outcomes.
  • Review the key dates and terms in the glossary to ensure you can recognize their significance in context.

• Ethical and practical implications

  • The era raises questions about empire and responsibility; the moral consequences of partition, mass migrations, and violence remain central to historical interpretation and current regional politics.

• Connections to broader themes in world history

  • The British Empire’s decline and the post-WWII decolonization wave mirror global shifts toward self-government and new international institutions; the Indian experience foreshadows later independence movements and the challenges of nation-building in diverse multi-ethnic states.

• LaTeX-formatted numerical references (examples)

  • Indian Mutiny year: 1857; Crown control established in 1858.
  • Partition year: 1947; Independence day: 15 ext{ August } 1947.
  • Montagu Declaration: 1917; Montagu–Chelmsford Report: 1918; Government of India Act 1919.
  • Government of India Act 1935: major framework for dyarchy and provincial autonomy; elections held in 1937: 1937.

• Notes on historiography (brief)

  • Historiography debates the extent to which British reforms were designed to contain nationalism vs. empower Indians; many scholars emphasize the divide-and-rule approach versus gradualist liberalization. The Pakistan movement and the role of Jinnah are viewed variably, with debates about the extent to which religion motivated state formation vs. political strategy.

• Final cross-chapter takeaway

  • The materials show a transition from imperial governance to decolonized, independent states, with both unity and division shaping the political landscape of India and Pakistan. The narrative emphasizes the interplay of political leadership, constitutional reform, social reform, and mass mobilization in the formation of modern South Asia.