Chapter 10/11

Physical Changes with Age

• Aging involves various physical changes across the lifespan.

• Cellular development primarily occurs through mitosis.

  • Mitosis is cell replication and division (most body cells).

  • Exception: Sperm and ovum reproduce via meiotic cell division.

  • Each reproductive cell contains 23 chromosomes; fusion leads to the formation of a zygote, initiating the germinal period (0-2 weeks).

  • Germinal period ends with the blastocyst attaching to the uterine wall.

  • If implantation fails, it results in spontaneous abortion.

Stages of Prenatal Development

• Germinal Stage (0-2 weeks)

• Embryonic Stage (2-8 weeks)

• Fetal Stage (8 weeks to term, approx. 40 weeks).

• Teratogens: Environmental hazards that can affect fetal development via the placental barrier.

  • Example: Fetal alcohol syndrome leads to cognitive deficits and physical features due to maternal alcohol consumption.

Cognitive Development Across the Lifespan

• Cognitive development varies significantly across different life stages.

• Piaget's theory: Cognitive development categorized into specific stages.

  • Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years): Children learn through touch, movement, and senses; concept of object permanence develops.

  • Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Children think symbolically but are egocentric and illogical.

  • Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years): Logical thinking emerges, focusing on concrete information.

  • Formal Operational Stage (12 years and up): Abstract and scientific thinking develop.

Socio-Emotional Development

• Plays a crucial role throughout childhood and adolescence.

• Play in Childhood:

  • Young children play with anyone; as they grow, they become selective about friends and romantic relationships.

• Friendship and social interactions become more complex with age.

• Adolescence as a social construct: Varies culturally; many societies do not have a term for adolescence.

• Different parenting styles (authoritarian, authoritative, neglectful) influence children’s development and independence.

• Separation and stranger anxiety indicate attachment development (occurs around 7-9 months).

Emotional Development

• Infancy to early childhood: Development of trust vs. mistrust based on caregiver consistency (Erikson's theory).

• Secure attachment promotes exploration and confidence; insecure attachments can lead to anxiety in relationships.

• As individuals age, social connections evolve; older adults often become selective about their social circles.

Adult Development

• Young Adulthood (20-40 years): Focus on establishing intimate relationships.

• Middle Adulthood (40-60 years): Generativity vs. stagnation, giving back to the next generation (e.g., parenting, mentoring).

• Old Age (60 years and onward): Reflect on life, dealing with concepts of mortality and control.

• Loneliness can be prevalent among younger adults due to mobility and changing social dynamics.

Moral Development

• Lawrence Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development:

  • Preconventional Level: Decisions based on external consequences (e.g., avoiding punishment).

  • Conventional Level: Conformity to social norms and laws.

  • Postconventional Level: Morality based on abstract reasoning and personal ethical principles.

• Morality often evolves from guided, external influences in childhood to more internalized values in adulthood.

Personality Development

• Personality is shaped through interaction within various developmental stages.

• Approaches to studying personality include:

  • Projective Tests (e.g., Rorschach): Subject responses analyzed to understand personality.

  • Self-report Inventories (e.g., MMPI): More practical and standardized assessment of personality traits.

  • Trait Theory (Big Five): Identifies five key personality dimensions: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Summary

• Development is a continuous process from prenatal stages to old age, involving physical, cognitive, socio-emotional, and moral growth.

• Each stage presents unique challenges and milestones that shape an individual's life and social interactions.