research methods

# Research Methods Flashcards

## Basic Concepts

Q: What is an independent variable (IV)?

A: The variable that is manipulated by the researcher to test its effect on the dependent variable. It is the 'cause' in the experiment.

Q: What is a dependent variable (DV)?

A: The variable that is measured to see if it changes when the IV is manipulated. It is the 'effect' in the experiment.

Q: What is operationalization?

A: The process of defining variables so they can be measured or manipulated in a clear, specific way.

## Research Methods

Q: What are the key differences between laboratory and field experiments?

A: Laboratory experiments offer high control but low ecological validity, while field experiments offer better ecological validity but less control over variables.

Q: What is a natural experiment?

A: A study where the IV occurs naturally and cannot be manipulated by the researcher, but the effects are studied scientifically.

Q: What is the difference between correlation and causation?

A: Correlation shows a relationship between variables but doesn't prove that one causes the other. Causation demonstrates that changes in one variable directly cause changes in another.

## Sampling

Q: What are the advantages and disadvantages of random sampling?

A: Advantages: Reduces bias, every member has equal chance. Disadvantages: Time-consuming, may not represent all subgroups.

Q: What is stratified sampling?

A: A method where the population is divided into subgroups (strata) and participants are randomly selected from each group proportionally.

Q: How does opportunity sampling differ from random sampling?

A: Opportunity sampling selects participants who are easily available, while random sampling gives every member of the population an equal chance of being selected.

## Research Designs

Q: What are the main features of an independent groups design?

A: Different participants in each condition, no order effects, but possible individual differences between groups.

Q: What are the advantages of a repeated measures design?

A: Same participants in all conditions, no individual differences between groups, but possible order effects.

Q: What is a matched pairs design?

A: Participants are matched on key variables and then split between conditions, controlling for individual differences while avoiding order effects.

## Data Analysis

Q: What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative data?

A: Quantitative data is numerical and can be measured/analyzed statistically. Qualitative data is descriptive and focuses on meanings/experiences.

Q: What are the three measures of central tendency?

A: Mean (average), Median (middle value), Mode (most frequent value)

Q: What is standard deviation?

A: A measure of spread that shows how much values typically differ from the mean.

## Ethics

Q: What is informed consent?

A: Participants must be told about the nature of the study and agree to participate, understanding their rights and any risks involved.

Q: What is debriefing?

A: The process of explaining the full nature of the study to participants after it ends, including any deception used and the true aims.

Q: When might deception be justified in psychological research?

A: When knowledge of the true aims would affect behavior, when there's no other way to study the behavior, and when potential benefits outweigh costs.

## Validity and Reliability

Q: What is the difference between reliability and validity?

A: Reliability refers to consistency of results when repeated. Validity refers to whether the study measures what it claims to measure.

Q: What factors can threaten internal validity?

A: Extraneous variables, demand characteristics, investigator effects, participant bias.

Q: How can ecological validity be improved?

A: By conducting research in natural settings, using real-life tasks, and minimizing artificial conditions.

# Advanced Research Methods Flashcards

## Aims & Hypotheses

Q: What makes a good research aim?

A: A good research aim should be clear, specific, measurable, and achievable. It should clearly state what is being investigated and be written in the form "To investigate/explore/examine..."

Q: What is the difference between directional and non-directional hypotheses?

A: A directional hypothesis predicts the specific direction of the relationship between variables (e.g., "will increase"), while a non-directional hypothesis only predicts that there will be a relationship (e.g., "will affect").

Q: What is the purpose of a null hypothesis?

A: The null hypothesis states there is no significant relationship between variables. It is what researchers try to reject to support their experimental hypothesis.

## Pilot Studies

Q: What are three main benefits of conducting a pilot study?

A: 1) Identifies potential problems in methodology, 2) Tests participant understanding of instructions, 3) Helps estimate required time and resources.

Q: How should results from a pilot study be used?

A: Results should be used to refine methodology, adjust timings, clarify instructions, modify materials, and calculate required sample size for the main study.

Q: Why is a pilot study important for validity?

A: It helps identify and eliminate confounding variables, ensures procedures are standardized, and confirms that measures are valid and reliable.

## Control Methods

Q: What is standardisation and why is it important?

A: Standardisation means keeping all procedures constant across all participants. It's important because it reduces confounding variables and increases reliability.

Q: How does random allocation differ from randomisation?

A: Random allocation refers specifically to assigning participants to conditions randomly, while randomisation is a broader term that includes random selection of participants and other random procedures.

Q: What is counterbalancing and when is it used?

A: Counterbalancing involves rotating the order of conditions to control for order effects. It's used in repeated measures designs where participants complete multiple conditions.

## Distribution Curves

Q: What are the key characteristics of a normal distribution?

A: Bell-shaped, symmetrical, mean = median = mode, 68% within 1 SD, 95% within 2 SD, 99.7% within 3 SD.

Q: In a positively skewed distribution, what is the relationship between mean, median, and mode?

A: Mean > Median > Mode

Q: What percentage of data falls within two standard deviations of the mean in a normal distribution?

A: 95% of all data falls within two standard deviations of the mean.

## Measures of Central Tendency

Q: What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the mean?

A: Advantages: Uses all data points, suitable for further statistical analysis. Disadvantages: Affected by extreme scores.

Q: When is the median most appropriate to use?

A: The median is most appropriate with skewed data, ordinal data, or when there are extreme scores that would distort the mean.

Q: What makes the mode useful or limited as a measure of central tendency?

A: Useful: Good for categorical data, easy to identify. Limited: May have multiple modes, doesn't always give a good central value.

Q: Why might you need to calculate all three measures of central tendency for a dataset?

A: Different measures provide different insights. Comparing all three helps identify the distribution shape and most appropriate measure to use.