Review Notes - US History Semester 1 - FINAL VERSION Slavery in the British Colonies, 1607–1754 Context and Growth of Slavery 1619: The first record
Review Notes - US History Semester 1 - FINAL VERSION
Slavery in the British Colonies, 1607–1754
Context and Growth of Slavery
1619: The first recorded Africans arrived in Virginia (Jamestown). Initially, some were treated like indentured servants, but by the mid-1600s, colonial laws increasingly defined slavery as permanent and hereditary.
Labor Needs: Tobacco in the Chesapeake and rice/indigo in the Carolinas required intensive labor. As indentured servitude declined (especially after Bacon’s Rebellion in 1676), colonists turned more heavily to enslaved Africans.
Transatlantic Slave Trade: The “Middle Passage” brought enslaved Africans across the Atlantic. Britain became a major participant, linking colonies to global commerce.
Legal and Social Development
Slave Codes: Laws in Virginia and Maryland (1660s onward) made slavery lifelong and passed through the mother’s status.
Racial Ideology: Colonists increasingly justified slavery through ideas of racial superiority, creating a rigid social hierarchy.
Widespread Presence: By 1754, slavery existed in all colonies, though its scale and role varied by region.
Slavery in the Chesapeake (Virginia & Maryland)
Economic Backbone: Tobacco plantations relied heavily on enslaved labor, making slavery central to the region’s prosperity.
Large Plantations: Wealthy planters owned dozens or even hundreds of enslaved workers.
Social Impact: A planter elite gained political power, while enslaved Africans faced harsh conditions and limited rights.
Culture: Enslaved communities developed family networks and preserved African traditions despite oppression.
Slavery North of the Chesapeake (New England & Middle Colonies)
Smaller Scale: Slavery existed but was less central to the economy. Farms were smaller and more diversified.
Urban Slavery: Enslaved people often worked in households, artisanal trades, and docks in cities like Boston, New York, and Philadelphia.
Economic Role: Northern merchants profited from the slave trade, supplying goods for plantations and participating in Atlantic commerce.
Social Presence: While numbers were smaller, slavery was still legally recognized, and enslaved people contributed to urban and commercial life.
Consequences
Economic Growth: Slavery fueled prosperity in both regions, though more directly in the Chesapeake.
Social Hierarchy: Both regions treated enslaved Africans as property, reinforcing racial inequality.
Resistance: Enslaved people resisted through revolts (e.g., Stono Rebellion, 1739 in South Carolina), escape, and cultural preservation.
Regional Differences: Chesapeake slavery was agricultural and large-scale, while northern slavery was urban and small-scale but still significant.
Reflection Questions
1. Why did the Chesapeake colonies rely more heavily on slavery than colonies north of the Chesapeake?
2. How did Bacon’s Rebellion influence the shift from indentured servitude to slavery?
3. In what ways did slavery contribute to both northern and southern economies, despite differences in scale?
4. How did racial ideologies shape colonial laws and society across regions?
5. What forms of resistance did enslaved people use, and how did these challenge the institution of slavery?
Tensions Between Colonies and Britain (1763–1778)
Historical Context
Britain’s victory in the French and Indian War (1754–1763) gave it control of vast new territories but left the empire with heavy debt.
To manage its empire and raise revenue, Britain imposed new policies on the colonies. Colonists, who had enjoyed relative autonomy, increasingly viewed these measures as violations of their rights.
Major Factors
1. Proclamation of 1763
Context: Issued after the French and Indian War to prevent colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains, aiming to reduce conflict with Native Americans.
Colonial Reaction: Colonists, eager for land, saw this as interference with their economic opportunity and expansion.
Path to Revolution: Created early resentment, as colonists felt Britain was restricting their freedom and prosperity, planting seeds of distrust.
2. Stamp Act (1765)
Context: Britain taxed printed materials (newspapers, legal documents, playing cards) to raise revenue.
Colonial Reaction: Colonists protested “no taxation without representation,” arguing Parliament had no right to tax them without colonial representatives.
Path to Revolution: Sparked boycotts, riots, and the formation of groups like the Sons of Liberty, showing organized resistance and unity across colonies.
3. Townshend Acts (1767)
Context: Imposed duties on imported goods such as glass, paper, paint, and tea.
Colonial Reaction: Colonists boycotted British goods and increased smuggling. Tensions escalated, leading to violent incidents like the Boston Massacre (1770).
Path to Revolution: Reinforced the idea that Britain was exploiting the colonies economically and militarily, fueling anger and radicalization.
4. Tea Act (1773) and Boston Tea Party
Context: Gave the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in the colonies.
Colonial Reaction: Colonists saw this as another attempt to control trade and taxation. In protest, they dumped tea into Boston Harbor.
Path to Revolution: Britain responded with harsh punishment, deepening colonial unity against perceived tyranny and escalating conflict.
5. Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts, 1774)
Context: Britain punished Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party by closing Boston Harbor, restricting town meetings, and quartering troops in colonists’ homes.
Colonial Reaction: Colonists viewed these acts as tyrannical. The First Continental Congress (1774) met to coordinate resistance.
Path to Revolution: Marked a turning point, convincing many colonists that Britain intended to strip them of self-government.
6. Lexington and Concord (1775)
Context: British troops attempted to seize colonial weapons in Massachusetts.
Colonial Reaction: Armed conflict broke out, beginning the Revolutionary War.
Path to Revolution: Shifted tensions from protest to open warfare, making reconciliation unlikely.
7. Declaration of Independence (1776)
Context: After continued fighting and rejection of reconciliation, colonies formally declared independence, citing Britain’s violations of their rights.
Path to Revolution: Solidified the Revolution, framing it as a struggle for liberty and self-rule.
Overall Impact
Each act or policy convinced colonists that Britain was undermining their liberties.
Economic boycotts and political protests united colonists across regions.
Violent clashes (Boston Massacre, Lexington and Concord) made reconciliation less likely.
By 1776, colonists concluded independence was the only solution to secure their rights and self-government.
Reflection Questions
1. Why did the Proclamation of 1763 anger colonists, and how did it set the stage for later conflicts?
2. How did colonial protests against the Stamp Act and Townshend Acts demonstrate growing unity?
3. Why were the Coercive Acts seen as a turning point in colonial resistance?
4. How did economic boycotts and political organizations contribute to revolutionary sentiment?
5. At what point do you think reconciliation with Britain became impossible, and why?
The Declaration of Independence
Background
By the mid-1770s, tensions between the American colonies and Britain had reached a breaking point.
Colonists had protested taxes (Stamp Act, Townshend Acts), resisted trade restrictions, and opposed military occupation.
The Coercive Acts (1774) and violent clashes at Lexington and Concord (1775) convinced many colonists that Britain intended to strip them of self-government.
The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia to coordinate resistance and debate whether independence was necessary.
Why It Was Written
Colonists had already sent the Olive Branch Petition (1775) to King George III, asking for reconciliation. The king rejected it and declared the colonies in rebellion.
By 1776, many colonists believed independence was the only way to secure their rights.
Congress appointed a committee (Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, Robert Livingston) to draft a formal declaration.
Content of the Declaration
Introduction: States the need to explain why the colonies are breaking away.
Natural Rights: Drawing on Enlightenment ideas (especially John Locke), Jefferson wrote that all men are endowed with rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
Government by Consent: Governments exist to protect rights; if they fail, people may alter or abolish them.
Grievances Against the King: Lists specific abuses by King George III, including taxation without representation, dissolving colonial legislatures, and maintaining standing armies in peacetime.
Formal Declaration: Declares the colonies “free and independent states” with the power to wage war, make peace, and establish trade.
Historical Significance
Immediate Impact: Unified the colonies under a common cause and justified rebellion to both domestic and international audiences.
Global Influence: Inspired later democratic movements in France, Latin America, and beyond.
Foundational Document: Established principles of liberty, equality, and self-government that continue to shape American identity.
In summary: The Declaration of Independence was written in 1776 at a moment when reconciliation with Britain seemed impossible. It combined Enlightenment philosophy with colonial grievances to justify independence, laying the ideological foundation for the new nation.
Reflection Questions
1. Why did the rejection of the Olive Branch Petition make independence more likely?
2. How did Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke influence Jefferson’s writing?
3. Why was it important to list grievances against King George III?
4. How did the Declaration serve both domestic and international purposes?
Religion and Migration to America (1500–1700)
General Influence
Religious Freedom as Motivation: Many groups migrated to escape persecution in Europe, seeking places to practice their faith freely.
Catholic vs. Protestant Rivalries: European powers often used colonization to spread their religion—Spain and France promoted Catholicism, while England promoted Protestantism.
Missionary Work: Catholic missionaries (Jesuits, Franciscans) traveled to the Americas to convert Indigenous peoples, especially in Spanish and French territories.
Puritan and Protestant Movements: In England, dissenters from the Church of England (Puritans, Separatists, Quakers) sought new lands where they could establish communities based on their religious ideals.
Influence on Specific Colonies (1600–1700)
1. Massachusetts Bay Colony (Puritans)
Founded in 1630 by Puritans fleeing religious persecution in England.
Religion shaped governance: leaders believed they were creating a “city upon a hill,” a model Christian society.
Strict religious laws influenced daily life; dissenters like Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson were banished for challenging orthodoxy.
2. Rhode Island (Religious Tolerance)
Established by Roger Williams in 1636 after being expelled from Massachusetts.
Became a haven for religious dissenters, including Baptists, Quakers, and Jews.
Known for separating church and state, a radical idea at the time.
3. Maryland (Catholic Refuge)
Founded in 1634 by Lord Baltimore as a refuge for English Catholics.
Passed the Maryland Toleration Act (1649), granting freedom of worship to all Christians.
Despite tensions between Catholics and Protestants, it was one of the first colonies to legislate religious tolerance.
4. Pennsylvania (Quakers)
Established in 1681 by William Penn as a “holy experiment.”
Quakers emphasized equality, pacifism, and tolerance.
Pennsylvania attracted diverse groups—Quakers, Mennonites, Lutherans, and others—making it one of the most religiously pluralistic colonies.
5. Virginia (Anglican Establishment)
Religion was less a motivator here; Virginia was founded primarily for economic reasons (tobacco).
The Church of England was the official church, and colonists were expected to support it through taxes.
Dissenting groups (like Baptists and Quakers) faced restrictions until later.
Overall Impact
Religion was a major driver of migration, especially for groups seeking freedom from persecution.
Colonies varied: some (Massachusetts, Virginia) enforced strict religious conformity, while others (Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, Maryland) promoted tolerance.
These differences laid the foundation for America’s later emphasis on religious freedom and pluralism.
Reflection Questions
1. Why did Puritans see Massachusetts as a “city upon a hill”?
2. How did Rhode Island’s religious policies differ from Massachusetts?
3. Why was the Maryland Toleration Act significant in colonial history?
4. How did Pennsylvania’s Quaker ideals shape its society compared to Virginia’s Anglican establishment?
Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer
John Dickinson’s Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania (1767–1768) were a series of essays that argued against British taxation of the colonies, insisting that Parliament could regulate trade but had no right to raise revenue without colonial consent. They became one of the most influential writings leading up to the American Revolution.
Historical Context
After the French and Indian War (1754–1763), Britain faced heavy debt and sought to raise money by taxing its colonies.
The Stamp Act (1765) and later the Townshend Acts (1767) imposed taxes on everyday goods like paper, glass, and tea.
Colonists believed these taxes violated their rights because they were enacted without colonial representation in Parliament.
About the Letters
Written by John Dickinson, a Pennsylvania lawyer and legislator, under the pseudonym “A Farmer.”
Published in newspapers between 1767 and 1768, then widely reprinted across the colonies.
Dickinson’s tone was calm and reasoned, not radical, which made his arguments persuasive to a broad audience.
Key Arguments
Parliament’s Authority: Dickinson accepted that Parliament could regulate trade for the empire’s benefit.
Taxation vs. Regulation: He rejected the idea that Parliament could impose duties designed to raise revenue, even if disguised as trade regulations.
Liberty at Stake: He warned that allowing Parliament to tax even small items would set a dangerous precedent, eventually stripping colonists of self-government.
Unity: Dickinson urged colonists to resist peacefully but firmly, emphasizing that defending liberty was a shared responsibility.
Impact
The letters were second only to Thomas Paine’s Common Sense in influence during the Revolutionary era.
They helped unite colonists against the Townshend Acts and shaped the constitutional debate about the limits of Parliament’s power.
Dickinson earned the nickname “Penman of the Revolution” for his ability to articulate colonial grievances clearly and persuasively.
His writings laid intellectual groundwork for later revolutionary documents, including the Declaration of Independence.
In short: Dickinson’s Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania explained why taxation without representation was unconstitutional, encouraged colonial unity, and became a cornerstone of revolutionary thought.
Anne Hutchinson
Anne Hutchinson was a Puritan spiritual leader in the Massachusetts Bay Colony who challenged the authority of ministers by emphasizing salvation through God’s grace rather than good works. In 1637, she was tried for heresy and sedition during the Antinomian Controversy, convicted, and banished from the colony.
Who Was Anne Hutchinson?
Born in England in 1591, Anne Hutchinson was the daughter of a clergyman who had himself been accused of heresy.
She married William Hutchinson and emigrated to Massachusetts Bay in 1634, following her minister John Cotton.
In Boston, she began hosting meetings in her home where men and women discussed sermons. She argued that most ministers emphasized outward works rather than inward grace, which she believed contradicted true Puritan theology.
Hutchinson’s popularity and outspoken views made her a central figure in what became known as the Antinomian Controversy (“against the law”), a debate over whether salvation came through God’s grace alone or through a combination of grace and good works.
The Trial of 1637
Governor John Winthrop and other magistrates saw Hutchinson’s teachings as a threat to the colony’s religious and social order.
In November 1637, she was brought before the General Court of Massachusetts Bay Colony.
Charges included:
Heresy: spreading “erroneous opinions” about salvation.
Sedition: challenging the authority of ministers and disturbing community peace.
Gender roles: stepping outside the accepted role of women by teaching men and women in her home.
Hutchinson defended herself skillfully, citing Scripture and her reputation for piety. However, she also claimed to receive direct revelations from God, which alarmed the court.
She was convicted and banished from Massachusetts in 1638.
Aftermath
Hutchinson and about 60 followers moved to Portsmouth, Rhode Island, near Roger Williams’ Providence Colony, which was more tolerant of dissent.
Later, she relocated to New Netherland (modern-day New York). In 1643, she and most of her family were killed in a Native American attack.
Hutchinson is remembered as a symbol of religious freedom, tolerance, and early challenges to patriarchal authority in colonial America.
The French and Indian War
The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was caused by competition between Britain and France over territory and trade in North America, especially the Ohio River Valley. Its effects included Britain’s territorial gains, France’s loss of power in North America, strained relations with Native Americans, and new British taxes on the colonies that helped spark the American Revolution.
Causes of the French and Indian War
Territorial Rivalry: Britain and France both claimed the Ohio River Valley, a fertile region crucial for westward expansion and trade.
Economic Competition: Both nations sought control of the lucrative fur trade, which depended on alliances with Native American tribes.
Population Pressure: By the 1750s, Britain’s colonies had over 1 million settlers, pushing westward into French-claimed lands, while New France had only about 60,000 colonists.
Native American Alliances: France had stronger ties with Native Americans, while British expansion often led to conflict with them. This rivalry drew Native groups into the war on both sides.
Global Context: The war in North America was part of the larger Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), a global struggle for empire between Britain and France.
Effects of the French and Indian War
Territorial Changes: Britain gained Canada and all French lands east of the Mississippi River, while Spain received Louisiana. France lost nearly all its North American territory.
British Debt: The war was extremely costly, leaving Britain with massive debt. To recover, Britain imposed new taxes on the colonies (Stamp Act, Townshend Acts), fueling resentment.
Colonial Unity: Colonists fought alongside British troops, gaining military experience and a sense of shared identity. Leaders like George Washington emerged during the conflict.
Native American Relations: Britain’s victory weakened Native American power. Without French support, tribes faced increasing pressure from British settlers, leading to uprisings like Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763).
Path to Revolution: Britain’s attempts to control colonial expansion (Proclamation of 1763) and raise revenue through taxes directly contributed to growing colonial resistance and eventually the American Revolution.
Biological Exchange and Colonization
The arrival of Europeans in the New World introduced devastating diseases such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, which indigenous populations had no immunity against. These epidemics caused catastrophic population declines, disrupted societies, and reshaped the cultural and demographic landscape of the Americas.
Background
Before 1492, the Americas were largely isolated from Eurasia and Africa. This meant indigenous peoples had never been exposed to Old World pathogens and therefore lacked immunity.
Europeans, having lived with these diseases for centuries, carried them unknowingly across the Atlantic.
Major Diseases Introduced
Smallpox: The deadliest disease, spreading rapidly and killing large portions of populations. Entire communities were wiped out.
Measles and Influenza: Caused widespread illness and death, especially in densely populated areas.
Typhus and Malaria: Further weakened indigenous populations, particularly in tropical regions.
Effects on Native Populations
Massive Population Decline: In some regions, up to 90% of the indigenous population died within a century of contact.
Loss of Leaders and Elders: Epidemics killed community leaders and knowledge keepers, disrupting cultural continuity.
Social Collapse: Families and villages were decimated, weakening resistance to European conquest.
Psychological Impact: Survivors often interpreted disease as a sign of spiritual imbalance or divine punishment, further destabilizing societies.
Broader Consequences
Facilitated European Expansion: With indigenous populations weakened, Europeans more easily seized land and resources.
Labor Shortages: The decline of native labor led colonizers to import enslaved Africans, fueling the transatlantic slave trade.
Cultural Transformation: Traditional practices, agriculture, and social structures were disrupted, replaced by European systems.
The Declaration of Causes
The Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms (July 6, 1775) was a document issued by the Second Continental Congress to explain why the American colonies had resorted to armed resistance against Britain. It justified the use of force while still expressing loyalty to King George III, marking a crucial step toward independence.
Historical Context
After the French and Indian War, Britain imposed new taxes and regulations (Stamp Act, Townshend Acts, Tea Act) to raise revenue, which colonists saw as violations of their rights.
Tensions escalated with violent clashes at Lexington and Concord (April 1775), the first battles of the Revolutionary War.
The colonies had already sent the Olive Branch Petition to King George III, seeking reconciliation. At the same time, they drafted the Declaration of Causes to explain why they were fighting.
Content of the Declaration
Authorship: Primarily written by Thomas Jefferson and John Dickinson, blending Jefferson’s fiery rhetoric with Dickinson’s cautious tone.
Grievances: The document accused Parliament of trying to enslave the colonies through unjust laws, taxation without representation, and military occupation.
Defense of Rights: It argued that government exists to promote human welfare, and Britain had violated this principle.
Necessity of Arms: Colonists insisted they had no choice but to defend themselves after peaceful appeals were ignored.
Loyalty to the King: The declaration emphasized that colonists were not seeking independence yet, but wanted their rights restored and British aggression stopped.
Significance
Unified Justification: It provided a clear explanation to both colonists and the wider world for why Americans had taken up arms.
Step Toward Independence: While still professing loyalty to the king, the declaration showed that reconciliation was becoming less likely.
Moral Appeal: It framed the conflict as a defense of liberty and human rights, themes that would later appear in the Declaration of Independence (1776).
International Audience: By publishing their reasoning, colonists sought to gain sympathy and legitimacy abroad.
John Locke’s Two Treatises of Government
John Locke’s Two Treatises of Government (published in 1689) argued against absolute monarchy and laid the foundation for modern democracy by emphasizing natural rights, the social contract, and the right of people to resist tyranny.
Historical Context
Written during the political turmoil of late 17th-century England, Locke’s work was shaped by the Glorious Revolution (1688), when King James II was deposed and William III and Mary II took the throne.
Locke sought to justify this revolution and provide a philosophical framework for limited government and individual liberty.
The First Treatise
Target: Locke directly attacked the ideas of Sir Robert Filmer, who defended the divine right of kings in his book Patriarcha.
Argument: Locke rejected the notion that monarchs had God-given authority over their subjects, comparing it to paternal authority.
Key Point: No person is born with political power over another; authority must come from consent, not divine inheritance.
The Second Treatise
State of Nature: Locke described a natural state where people are free and equal, governed by reason and natural law.
Natural Rights: Every individual has inherent rights to life, liberty, and property.
Social Contract: People form governments to protect these rights. Legitimate government is based on the consent of the governed.
Limited Government: Government power must be restricted to protecting rights, not ruling arbitrarily.
Right to Resist: If a government violates natural rights or becomes tyrannical, citizens have the right to rebel and establish a new government.
Significance
Locke’s ideas became central to classical liberalism and influenced later democratic revolutions.
His emphasis on natural rights and government by consent directly shaped the American Revolution and the Declaration of Independence.
The concept of limited government and checks on authority remains foundational in modern constitutional systems.
Demographics of Colonial Settlers
In New England, settlers tended to migrate as family groups with a more balanced gender ratio and longer life expectancy, while in the Chesapeake, most settlers were young single men, creating a skewed sex ratio and shorter lifespans.
New England Colonies
Family Migration: Many settlers came as entire families, especially Puritans seeking religious freedom. This created a more balanced gender ratio compared to other regions.
Gender Ratio: Early on, men outnumbered women about 3 to 2, but the population quickly stabilized and became self-sustaining by the 1630s.
Age Distribution: Settlers included men, women, and children, leading to stable communities with grandparents becoming common by the late 1600s.
Life Expectancy: Cold climate and healthier conditions meant colonists lived 65–70 years on average, much longer than in England.
Social Impact: Balanced demographics fostered tight-knit towns, strong family structures, and emphasis on education and religion.
Chesapeake Colonies (Virginia & Maryland)
Economic Migration: Most settlers came for profit, particularly tobacco cultivation. Early migration was dominated by young single men seeking work or land.
Gender Ratio: Extremely skewed—early records show as many as six men for every woman, later improving to about three men for every woman by the 1680s.
Age Distribution: Predominantly men in their late teens and twenties, often indentured servants. Few families migrated initially.
Life Expectancy: Harsh climate, disease (malaria, dysentery), and poor living conditions led to shorter lifespans, often only into the 40s or 50s.
Social Impact: The imbalance created unstable family life, slower population growth, and reliance on continued immigration to sustain the workforce.
Key Differences
New England: Family-centered, balanced gender ratio, longer lifespans, stable communities.
Chesapeake: Male-dominated, skewed sex ratio, shorter lifespans, unstable family structures, and slower natural population growth.
George Whitefield and the Great Awakening
Who he was: George Whitefield (1714–1770) was an English Anglican preacher and one of the most famous revivalists of the First Great Awakening in the American colonies.
Style: Known for his dramatic, emotional sermons delivered outdoors to thousands, he traveled widely across Britain and the American colonies.
Impact: Whitefield’s preaching emphasized personal conversion, heartfelt faith, and the need to be “born again.” His popularity helped spread revivalist enthusiasm across colonial society, cutting across denominational lines.
Results of the Great Awakening
1. Religious Impact
Revival of Faith: The Awakening renewed religious enthusiasm, stressing personal experience of salvation rather than formal church rituals.
New Denominations: It led to the growth of Baptists, Methodists, and other evangelical groups, challenging the dominance of established churches like the Anglicans and Congregationalists.
Decline of Old Authority: Traditional clergy (often called “Old Lights”) lost influence as “New Light” ministers gained followers through emotional preaching.
2. Social and Cultural Changes
Greater Equality in Religion: The Awakening emphasized that anyone—rich or poor, educated or uneducated—could experience God’s grace. This democratized religion and weakened hierarchical structures.
Role of Women and Minorities: Women often played active roles in revival meetings, and some African Americans found empowerment in evangelical churches, laying groundwork for later movements.
Education: New colleges (like Princeton, Dartmouth, and Brown) were founded to train ministers aligned with revivalist ideals.
3. Political Effects
Questioning Authority: By challenging established church leaders, the Awakening encouraged colonists to question other forms of authority, including political ones.
Unity Across Colonies: Revival meetings brought together people from different colonies, fostering a shared identity that helped prepare the way for cooperation during the American Revolution.
Seeds of Democracy: The emphasis on individual conscience and equality in religion influenced broader ideas of liberty and self-government.
A Plan of a Proposed Union Between Great Britain and the Colonies
A political idea put forward in the mid-18th century (around 1754, during the Albany Congress) as a way to strengthen ties between Britain and its American colonies.
Purpose: It aimed to create a unified colonial government under British oversight to coordinate defense, manage relations with Native Americans, and regulate trade.
Structure: The plan suggested a central council made up of representatives from each colony, overseen by a royal governor appointed by the Crown.
Context: Britain wanted more efficient administration and military cooperation during conflicts like the French and Indian War. Colonists, however, feared losing local autonomy.
Outcome: The plan was ultimately rejected—colonial assemblies resisted surrendering power, and Britain worried it gave too much independence.
In short, it was an early attempt at colonial unity under Britain’s authority, but its rejection highlighted the growing tension between local self-rule and imperial control.
Thomas Paine’s Common Sense (January 1776)
It was a powerful pamphlet that argued for American independence from Britain.
Purpose: Paine wrote it to persuade ordinary colonists that breaking away from Britain was both necessary and achievable.
Key Arguments:
Monarchy is corrupt and unnatural; kings have no divine right to rule.
The colonies had matured and no longer needed Britain’s control.
Independence would allow America to trade freely and form alliances.
A republic based on the consent of the governed was the best form of government.
Impact: It sold over 100,000 copies in just a few months, spreading revolutionary ideas widely and helping shift public opinion toward independence.
Common Sense transformed colonial anger into a clear call for independence, making it one of the most influential writings of the American Revolution.