1. Experimental Method - Establishes cause-effect relationships by manipulating the independent variable and measuring its effect on the dependent variable while keeping other factors constant.
2. Types of Experiments
*Field Experiment - Conducted in a natural setting; has lower control over variables.
*Quasi-Experiment -Uses naturally occurring groups instead of manipulating variables.
3. Scientific Observation vs. Day-to-Day Observation
*Selection -Focuses on specific behaviors.
*Recording - Uses systematic documentation.
*Analysis - Data is analyzed to find patterns and draw conclusions.
4. Survey Research -Collects opinions, attitudes, and facts through personal interviews, questionnaires, telephonic surveys, and controlled observations.
5. Case Study -An in-depth study of unique individuals or groups, often using multiple methods.
6. Reliability & Validity
*Reliability - Consistency of test results (Test-Retest & Split-Half Reliability).
*Validity -Whether a test measures what it claims to measure.
7. Norms in Psychological Testing -, A test becomes standardized when norms (average performance of a group) are established to compare individual scores.
8. Psychological Tests -Standardized tools to assess mental or behavioral characteristics.
*Verbal, Non-Verbal, Performance Tests -Based on language requirements.
*Individual vs. Group Tests -Based on administration method.
*Speed vs. Power Tests - Based on difficulty level and time constraints.
9. Types of Interviews
*Structured -Fixed questions in a set order, with limited flexibility.
*Unstructured -Open-ended and flexible questioning.
10. Observation Method -Used to study behavior directly.
*Naturalistic vs. Controlled -Observing in real life vs. in a controlled lab setting.
*Participant vs. Non-Participant - Observer joins the group or stays distant.
11. Experimental & Control Groups
*Experimental Group -Receives the treatment or manipulation.
*Control Group - Does not receive the manipulation, used for comparison.
12. Strengths & Weaknesses of Experiments
*Strengths - Provides strong cause-effect evidence.
*Weaknesses - Can be artificial and not always generalizable to real life.
13. Types of Variables in Experiments
*Independent - Manipulated by the researcher.
*Dependent - Measured outcome.
*Extraneous -Unwanted variables that need control.
*Organismic Variables -Individual differences like intelligence, anxiety.
*Situational Variables -Environmental factors like noise, temperature.
*Sequential Variables - Effects of testing order (fatigue, practice effects).
14. Techniques to Control Variables
*Elimination - Removing extraneous factors.
*Matching -Equating characteristics across groups.
*Counterbalancing -Changing the order of tasks to reduce sequence effects.
*Random Assignment - Ensuring all participants have equal chances of being in any group.
15. Correlational Research - Studies relationships between two variables but does not determine cause-effect.
*Positive Correlation -Both variables increase or decrease together.
*Negative Correlation - One increases while the other decreases.
*Zero Correlation - No relationship.
16. Scientific Research Process
*Conceptualizing a Problem -Identifying a research question and forming a hypothesis.
*Collecting Data -Choosing participants, methods, tools, and procedures.
*Analyzing Data -Using statistical techniques to verify hypotheses.
*Revising Conclusions -Confirming, modifying, or rejecting hypotheses based on results.
17. Nature of Psychological Data -Data types include:
*Demographic Data -Age, gender, education, etc.
*Physical Data -Living conditions, facilities.
*Physiological Data -Heart rate, sleep patterns, brain activity.
*Psychological Data -Intelligence, personality, emotions, motivation.
18. Limitations of Psychological Enquiry
*Lack of True Zero Point -No absolute ‘zero’ for traits like intelligence.
*Context-Dependent Tests -Psychological tools must be adapted to different cultures.
*Subjective Interpretation -Qualitative data can be biased.
19. Ethical Guidelines in Psychological Research
*Voluntary Participation -No coercion.
*Informed Consent -Participants must understand the study before agreeing.
*Debriefing Explaining the study afterward, especially if deception was used.
*Sharing Results - Informing participants of findings.
*Confidentiality - Protecting participant privacy.
20. Survey Method Uses & Limitations
*Uses -Studying public opinion, attitudes, social issues.
*Limitations -Participants may give inaccurate or biased answers, mailed surveys have low response rates, and telephone surveys may have uncooperative respondents.
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Studied by 8 people