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Imperialism: Debates

Our form of government, our traditions, our present interests, and our

future welfare, all forbid our entering upon a career of conquest.

William Jennings Bryan, December 13, 1898

Learning Objective: Explain the similarities and differences in attitudes

about the nation’s proper role in the world.

After the 1790s, U.S. foreign policy had centered on expanding westward,

protecting U.S. interests abroad, and limiting foreign influences in the Americas.

After the Civil War, with a booming industrial economy, the United States

showed increasing interest not only in overseas trade, but also in establishing

bases and territories in the Caribbean Sea and across the Pacific Ocean. After

1890, the nation carried on a growing debate over whether it should join the

competition for overseas territories with imperialist nations of the world or

remain true to its anti-colonial traditions.

Expansion after the Civil War

William H. Seward of New York served as secretary of state (1861–1869)

under both Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson. Seward was the most

influential secretary of state since John Quincy Adams (who formulated the

Monroe Doctrine in 1823). During the Civil War, Seward helped prevent

Great Britain and France from entering the war on the side of the Confederacy.

He led the drive to annex Midway Island in the Pacific, gained rights to build

a canal in Nicaragua, and purchased the vast territory of Alaska. Despite his

powerful advocacy for expansionism, Seward failed to convince Congress to

annex Hawaii and to purchase the Danish West Indies.

The Purchase of Alaska For decades, Russia and Great Britain both

claimed the vast territory of Alaska. Russia finally assumed control and

established a small colony for seal hunting, but the territory soon became

an economic burden because of the threat of a British takeover. Seeking

buyers, Russia found Seward to be an enthusiastic champion of the idea of the

United States purchasing Alaska. As a result of Seward’s lobbying, and also in

appreciation of Russian support during the Civil War, Congress in 1867 agreed

to buy Alaska for $7.2 million. However, for many years Americans saw no

value in Alaska and referred to it derisively as “Seward’s Folly” or “Seward’s

Icebox” and ignored its development.

441TOPIC 7.2 IMPERIALISM: DEBATES

Hawaiian Islands Since the mid-1800s, American missionaries and

entrepreneurs had settled in the Pacific islands of Hawaii. Later, a U.S.

commission explored the use of Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, or the Sandwich

Islands, which lay astride the sea-lanes from California to China. In 1870,

Ulysses S. Grant sought control of Pearl Harbor on Oahu and new trade

treaties with the native kingdom. Hawaiians agreed to a treaty in 1875 giving

the United States exclusive rights to Hawaiian sugar. In 1893, American settlers

aided in the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarch, Queen Liliuokalani and

then petitioned for annexation by the United States. If Hawaii became part of

the United States, Hawaiian sugar would not be subject to the high U.S. tariffs

on imports. However, President Grover Cleveland opposed imperialism and

blocked Republican efforts to annex Hawaii.

The Era of “New Imperialism”

The conquest and division of many parts of Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Islands by

more industrialized nations during the 19th century marked a renewed interest

in imperialism. Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Japan, and other nations,

some as small as Belgium, gained control by arms or by economic dominance.

The United States also participated in this contest. Most U.S. advocates of

expansionism hoped to succeed through economic and diplomatic means,

without resorting to military action. Expansion into new territories continued

a long pattern in U.S. history, but adding land overseas was a change from the

past. People supported expansion for different combinations of reasons.

Economic Interests The country’s growing industries were strong

supporters of expanding U.S. economic interests around the world. Foreign

countries offered both valuable raw materials, including minerals, oil, and

rubber, and provided markets for products. Many in the Republican Party

were closely allied with business leaders and therefore generally endorsed

an imperialist foreign policy. Like industrialists, farmers were eager to sell

overseas. They saw the growing populations of cities, both in the United States

and internationally, as potential markets for wheat, corn, and livestock.

Political and Military Power Some people believed that the United States

needed to compete with the imperialistic nations or it would be sidelined as a

second-class power in world affairs. Chief among these was U.S. Navy Captain

Alfred Thayer Mahan. He shaped the debate over the need for naval bases

with his book The Influence of Sea Power Upon History (1890). He argued that

a strong navy was crucial to a country’s ambitions of securing foreign markets

and becoming a world power. Mahan’s book was widely read by prominent

American citizens as well as by political leaders in Europe and Japan.

Using arguments in Mahan’s book, U.S. naval strategists persuaded

Congress to finance the construction of modern steel ships and encouraged

the acquisition of overseas islands. Among these islands were Samoa and

others in the Pacific Ocean that provided coaling and supply stations so that

the new fleet could project power globally. By 1900, the U.S. Navy was the third

largest in the world. Among politicians, Assistant Secretary of the Navy and

442 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION

later President Theodore Roosevelt and Senator Henry Cabot Lodge were the

leading proponents of expanding U.S. naval power and influence in the world.

Social Fears The Panic of 1893, the violence of labor-management

conflicts, and the perception that the country no longer had a frontier in

the 1890s caused fear of increasing social turmoil. Overseas territories and

adventures offered the country a possible safety valve for dissatisfied urban

workers and farmers.

Darwinism and Religion Some saw expansion into the Caribbean,

Central America, and the Pacific Ocean as an extension of the idea of Manifest

Destiny that had long fostered westward expansion. In addition, they applied

Darwin’s concept of the survival of the fittest not only to competition in

business but also to competition among countries. Therefore, to demonstrate

strength in the international arena, expansionists wanted to acquire territories

overseas. In his book Our Country: Its Possible Future and Present Crisis (1885),

the Reverend Josiah Strong wrote that people of Anglo-Saxon stock were “the

fittest to survive.” He believed that Protestant Americans had a religious duty

to colonize other lands in order to spread Christianity and the benefits of their

“superior” civilization (medicine, science, and technology) to “less fortunate”

peoples of the world. Many missionaries who traveled to Africa, Asia, and the

Pacific Islands believed in the racial superiority of White people, although some

went more for humanitarian reasons. To support these missionaries, many

Americans called for active U.S. government involvement in foreign affairs.

Popular Press Newspaper and magazine editors found that they could

increase circulation by printing adventure stories about distant places exotic

to their readers. Stories in the popular press increased public interest and

stimulated demands for a larger U.S. role in world affairs.

Opposition to Imperialism

Many people in the United States strongly opposed imperialism. They did so

for a combination of reasons:

• They believed in self-determination. One of the founding principles

of the United States was that people should govern themselves. They

believed that this principle applied to people everywhere, not just in the

United States. They felt that imperialism was morally wrong.

• They rejected imperialist racial theories. Some denied that Whites were

biologically superior to people of Asia or Africa, and so Whites had no

right to rule others. However, many Americans feared adding nonwhite

people to the country.

• They supported isolationism. George Washington had advised the

country to avoid involvement in foreign affairs. Anti-imperialists

argued that this was still good advice.

• They opposed the expense of imperialism. Building a large navy and

controlling foreign territories would cost more than they were worth.

443TOPIC 7.2 IMPERIALISM: DEBATES

Latin America

Beginning with the Monroe Doctrine in the 1820s, the United States had taken

a special interest in problems of the Western Hemisphere and had assumed

the role of protector of Latin America from European ambitions. Benjamin

Harrison’s Secretary of State James G. Blaine of Maine played a principal role

in extending this tradition.

Pan-American Diplomacy Blaine’s repeated efforts to establish closer

ties between the United States and its southern neighbors bore fruit in 1889

with the meeting of the first Pan-American Conference in Washington.

Representatives from various nations of the Western Hemisphere decided to

create a permanent organization to promote cooperation on trade and other

issues. Blaine had hoped to reduce tariff rates. Although this goal was not

achieved, the foundation was established for the larger goal of hemispheric

cooperation on both economic and political issues. The Pan-American Union

continues today as part of the Organization of American States, which was

established in 1948.

Cleveland, Olney, and the Monroe Doctrine One of the most important

uses of the Monroe Doctrine in the late 19th century concerned a boundary

dispute between Venezuela and its neighbor—the British colony of Guiana.

In 1895 and 1896, President Cleveland and Secretary of State Richard Olney

insisted that Great Britain agree to arbitrate the dispute. The British initially

said the matter was not the business of the United States. However, the United

States argued that the Monroe Doctrine applied to the situation. If the British

did not arbitrate, the United States would back up its argument with military

force.

Deciding that U.S. friendship was more important to its long-term interests

than a boundary dispute in South America, the British agreed to U.S. demands.

As it turned out, the arbitrators ruled mainly in favor of Britain, not Venezuela.

Even so, Latin American nations appreciated U.S. efforts to protect them from

European domination. The Venezuela boundary dispute marked a turning

point in U.S.–British relations. From 1895 on, the two countries cultivated a

friendship rather than continuing their former rivalry. The friendship would

prove vital for both nations in the 20th century.

Growing Conflict over Imperialism The precedent of the Monroe

Doctrine provided expansionists an open invitation to interfere in the other

nations of the Americas. This was the beginning of a fierce political battle

over the future of the country. One side represented the anti-colonial and self-

government traditions of the nation rooted in the struggle for independence

against Great Britain. The other side expressed the interests of those committed

to economic and global power. The conflict between imperialists and anti-

imperialists over controlling overseas territories intensified in the debate over the

Spanish-American War and the colonization of the Philippines (see Topic 7.3).

444 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION

REFLECT ON THE LEARNING OBJECTIVE

1. Explain two differences between American imperialists and

anti-imperialists.

KEY TERMS BY THEME

Overseas Involvement (WOR)

William H. Seward

Monroe Doctrine

purchase of Alaska (1867)

Hawaii

Pearl Harbor

Queen Liliuokalani

Grover Cleveland

James G. Blaine

Pan-American Conference (1889)

Richard Olney

Venezuela boundary dispute

Causes of U.S. Imperialism (WOR)

“New Imperialism”

Alfred Thayer Mahan

Darwinism

expansionists

Josiah Strong

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Questions 1–2 refer to the following excerpt.

“We hold that the policy known as imperialism is hostile to liberty and

tends toward militarism, an evil from which it has been our glory to be

free. We regret that it has become necessary in the land of Washington and

Lincoln to reaffirm that all men, of whatever race or color, are entitled to

life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. . . .

“We earnestly condemn the policy of the present national administration

in the Philippines. It seeks to extinguish the spirit of 1776 in those islands.

. . . We denounce the slaughter of the Filipinos as a needless horror.

We protest against the extension of American sovereignty by Spanish

methods. We demand the immediate cessation of the war against liberty,

begun by Spain and continued by us. We urge that Congress be promptly

convened to announce to the Filipinos our purpose to concede to them

the independence for which they have so long fought and which of right

is theirs.”

Platform of the American Anti-Imperialist

League, October 17, 1899

445TOPIC 7.2 IMPERIALISM: DEBATES

1. Supporters of this excerpt would most likely agree with which of the

following beliefs?

(A) The peoples of Asia had a right to govern themselves without

outside interference.

(B) The United States had a duty to bring the benefits of civilization and

religion to others.

(C) The people of underdeveloped countries were unprepared and unfit

to govern themselves.

(D) The United States should take over weak countries that might fall to

other great powers.

2. Which of the following most directly contributed to the sentiments

expressed in the excerpt?

(A) The sensationalism of the popular press of the time

(B) The values expressed in the Declaration of Independence

(C) The views of Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge

(D) The changing interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine

SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION

Use complete sentences; an outline or bulleted list alone is not acceptable.

1. Answer (a), (b), and (c).

(a) Briefly explain ONE difference between the position of imperialists

and anti-imperialists on the acquisition of overseas territories in the

period of the Spanish-American War.

(b) Briefly describe ONE controversial territorial acquisition and why

expansionists favored it in the period from 1865 to 1900.

(c) Briefly describe ONE controversial territorial acquisition and why

anti-imperialists opposed it in the period from 1865 to 1900.

446 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION

Topic 7.3

The Spanish-American War and

U.S. Foreign Policy to 1917

We are Anglo-Saxons, and must obey our blood and

occupy new markets, and, if necessary, new lands.

Senator Albert Beveridge, April 27, 1898

Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the Spanish-

American War.

The first targets of American imperialism were nearby Caribbean islands.

Expansionists from the South had coveted Cuba as early as the 1850s. Now,

in the 1890s, large American investments in Cuban sugar, Spanish misrule

of Cuba, and the Monroe Doctrine all provided reasons for U.S. intervention

in the Caribbean’s largest island. Connected to U.S. involvement on Cuba, an

island only 90 miles south of mainland United States, came involvement in the

Philippines, islands over 7,000 miles to the west.

Spanish-American War

In the 1890s, American public opinion was being swept by a growing wave

of jingoism—an intense form of nationalism calling for an aggressive foreign

policy. Expansionists demanded that the United States take its place with the

imperialist nations of Europe as a world power. Not everyone favored such a

policy. Presidents Cleveland and McKinley were among many who thought

military action abroad was both morally wrong and economically unsound.

Nevertheless, specific events combined with background pressures led to

overwhelming popular demand for war against Spain.

Causes of the War

A combination of jingoism, economic interests, and moral concerns made the

United States more willing to go to war than it had been. These factors came

together in 1898.

Cuban Revolt Cuban nationalists fought but failed to overthrow Spanish

colonial rule between 1868 and 1878. They renewed the struggle in 1895.

Through sabotage and attacks on Cuban plantations, they hoped to either

push Spain out or pull the United States in as an ally. In response, Spain sent

447TOPIC 7.3 THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR AND U.S. FOREIGN POLICY TO 1917

autocratic General Valeriano Weyler and 100,000 troops to crush the revolt.

Weyler forced civilians into camps, where tens of thousands died of starvation

and disease. This action gained him the title of “the Butcher” in the U.S. press.

Yellow Press Actively promoting war fever in the United States was

“yellow journalism,” sensationalistic reporting that featured bold and lurid

headlines of crime, disaster, and scandal. Among the most sensationalistic

newspapers were Joseph Pulitzer’s New York World and William Randolph

Hearst’s New York Journal. These papers printed exaggerated and false

accounts of Spanish atrocities in Cuba. Believing what they read daily in

their newspapers, many Americans urged Congress and the president to

intervene in Cuba for humanitarian reasons and put a stop to the atrocities

and suffering.

De Lôme Letter (1898) One story that caused a storm of outrage was a

Spanish diplomat’s letter that was leaked to the press and printed on the front

page of Hearst’s Journal. Written by the Spanish minister to the United States,

Dupuy de Lôme, the letter was highly critical of President McKinley. Many

considered it an official Spanish insult against the U.S. national honor.

Sinking of the Maine Less than one week after the de Lôme letter made

headlines, a far more shocking event occurred. On February 15, 1898, the U.S.

battleship USS Maine was at anchor in the harbor of Havana, Cuba, when it

suddenly exploded, killing 260 Americans on board. The yellow press accused

Spain of deliberately blowing up the ship. However, experts later concluded

that the explosion was probably an accident.

McKinley’s War Message Following the sinking of the USS Maine,

President McKinley issued an ultimatum to Spain demanding that it agree

to a ceasefire in Cuba. Spain agreed to this demand, but U.S. newspapers

and a majority in Congress kept clamoring for war. McKinley yielded to the

public pressure in April by sending a war message to Congress. He offered

four reasons why the United States should support the Cuban rebels:

1. “Put an end to the barbarities, bloodshed, starvation, and horrible

miseries” in Cuba

2. Protect the lives and property of U.S. citizens living in Cuba

3. End “the very serious injury to the commerce, trade, and business of

our people”

4. End “the constant menace to our peace” arising from disorder in Cuba

Teller Amendment Responding to the president’s message, Congress

passed a joint resolution on April 20, 1898, authorizing war. Part of the

resolution, the Teller Amendment, declared that the United States had no

intention of taking political control of Cuba and that, once peace was restored

to the island, the Cuban people would control their own government.

Imperialism: Debates

Our form of government, our traditions, our present interests, and our future welfare, all forbid our entering upon a career of conquest. - William Jennings Bryan, December 13, 1898Learning Objective: Explain the similarities and differences in attitudes about the nation’s proper role in the world.

After the 1790s, U.S. foreign policy had centered on expanding westward, protecting U.S. interests abroad, and limiting foreign influences in the Americas. After the Civil War, with a booming industrial economy, the United States showed increased interest in overseas trade and in establishing bases and territories in the Caribbean Sea and across the Pacific Ocean. Following 1890, the nation engaged in a growing debate over whether it should join the competition for overseas territories alongside imperialist nations or remain true to its anti-colonial traditions.

Expansion after the Civil War

William H. Seward of New York, who served as secretary of state from 1861 to 1869 under both Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson, emerged as the most influential secretary of state since John Quincy Adams. During the Civil War, he played a crucial role in preventing Great Britain and France from siding with the Confederacy. Seward championed the annexation of Midway Island, gained rights for a canal in Nicaragua, and purchased Alaska for $7.2 million in 1867. However, he failed to convince Congress to annex Hawaii and purchase the Danish West Indies. Despite initial skepticism and mockery, labeled as “Seward’s Folly” or “Seward’s Icebox,” Alaska eventually became invaluable.

In the Hawaiian Islands, American missionaries and entrepreneurs settled in the mid-1800s, seeking access to Pearl Harbor for commerce. After a treaty in 1875 granted the United States exclusive rights to Hawaiian sugar, American settlers aided in the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani in 1893. However, President Grover Cleveland opposed imperialism and blocked efforts for annexation at that time.

The Era of “New Imperialism”

During the 19th century, many industrialized nations conquered parts of Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Islands, marking a resurgence in imperialism. The United States participated in this expansion, with advocates favoring economic and diplomatic means over military action. Economic interests played a significant role, as growing industries pushed for access to valuable raw materials and new markets for agricultural products. Political and military power, led by figures such as U.S. Navy Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, emphasized the necessity of a strong navy for securing foreign markets and projecting power. Amid fears of social unrest during the Panic of 1893 and the absence of a domestic frontier, overseas territories presented a safety valve for discontent.

Moreover, the application of Darwin’s survival of the fittest concept and the notion of Manifest Destiny drove expansionists to acquire overseas territories. Reverend Josiah Strong posited that Anglo-Saxon Americans had a religious duty to spread their civilization. Meanwhile, the popular press fueled public interest in imperialism through sensational stories about exploration and adventure.

Opposition to Imperialism

Despite strong support for imperialism, many opposed it based on principles of self-determination, asserting that all people deserve the right to govern themselves. Others rejected imperialist racial theories, objecting to the premise that Europeans were superior. Isolationism, as advocated by George Washington, also played a role in the anti-imperialist argument, which claimed the financial burden of building an empire was unnecessary.

Latin America

Beginning with the Monroe Doctrine in the 1820s, the United States took on the role of protector in Latin America. Under Secretary of State James G. Blaine, the first Pan-American Conference was held in 1889, attempting to establish closer ties within the Western Hemisphere. In 1895, President Cleveland asserted the Monroe Doctrine in a boundary dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana, successfully pressuring Britain to arbitrate.

As expansionists found justification for intervention in the Americas, a fierce political battle emerged between anti-colonial forces and those invested in global power, a conflict that intensified during the Spanish-American War and the colonization of the Philippines.

When studying imperialism and the debates surrounding it in the United States, consider the following important points:

• Views on Imperialism: There were significant divisions in American society regarding the nation’s role in global affairs. Some viewed imperialism as a necessary extension of U.S. interests, while others condemned it as morally wrong and counter to the principles of self-determination.

• Key Figures: Important leaders included William H. Seward, who pushed for U.S. expansion, and anti-imperialists like William Jennings Bryan, who warned against conquest.

• Economic Motives: Industrial growth drove the U.S. to seek new markets for goods and sources for raw materials, influencing expansionist policies.

• Military Considerations: The U.S. Navy's expansion, advocated by Alfred Thayer Mahan, was seen as crucial for protecting American interests overseas.

• Humanitarian Claims and Racial Theories: Some Americans justified imperialism through a belief in the superiority of Anglo-Saxon civilization and a perceived duty to spread Christianity and Western culture.

• Opposition to Imperialism: Key arguments against imperialism included beliefs in self-determination, rejection of racial superiority theories, and concerns about the financial and moral costs of maintaining an empire.

• Monroe Doctrine: Established a U.S. role as a protector in the Western Hemisphere, which laid the groundwork for future interventions in Latin America.

• Spanish-American War: A significant event that intensified imperialism debates, showcasing the conflict between expansionist and anti-imperialist sentiments.