AP American Government and Politics Ch. 1 & 2

Chapter 1: American government and politics

1.2 Ideals of democracy

Declaration of Independence

• Core idea: The people hold ultimate authority over government through consent; when government violates rights, people may alter or abolish it.

• Grievances: Specific abuses by King George III justified independence.

• Use: Template for other independence movements; anchors American democratic ideals.

Popular sovereignty and limited government

• Popular sovereignty: Authority to rule comes from the people; expressed through elections, protests, and civic participation.

• Limited government: Government power is constrained by law and the Constitution; separation of powers and checks and balances prevent tyranny.

Inalienable rights

• Definition: Natural rights the government cannot legitimately take away.

• Content: Life, liberty, property (Locke); life, liberty, pursuit of happiness (Declaration).

• Protection: Bill of Rights and due process safeguard these rights.

Two visions of liberty

• Negative liberty: Freedom from government interference; emphasizes individual protections and limited government.

• Positive liberty: Capacity to realize one’s potential; often linked to policies enabling opportunity (education, civil rights).

• Balance: American constitutionalism protects both via rights and institutions.

The pursuit of happiness

• Meaning: Broad freedom to seek wellbeing and fulfillment; substitutes Locke’s “property” in Jefferson’s phrasing, signaling moral and social aspirations.

Religion in America

• Context: Enlightenment values shaped a pluralistic approach to religion and governance (free exercise, establishment limits).

• Implications: Religious diversity informs civil society and policy debates; protected by constitutional principles.

1.3 Types of democracy

Participatory democratic theory

• Definition: Widespread participation in politics and civil society is essential to democratic government.

• Examples: Voting, town halls, public comments on rules, local boards.

Pluralist theory

• Definition: Nongovernmental, group-based activism influences policymaking.

• Mechanisms: Interest groups, amicus briefs, lobbying, issue networks.

Elitist theory

• Definition: Elites have disproportionate influence; broader participation is limited.

• Implications: Resources, expertise, and institutional access shape outcomes.

1.4 Institutions, systems, and power

Types of governments and power

• Confederal: States hold primary power; central government is weak (Articles of Confederation).

• Federal: Power shared between national and state governments (U.S. Constitution).

• Unitary: Central government holds most power; local units administer.

Chapter 2: The constitution

2.1 Challenges of the Articles of Confederation

A firm league of friendship

• Structure: States retained sovereignty; central government coordinated common affairs but lacked enforcement capacity.

Limitations on the power of the confederal government

• Key weaknesses:

  • Taxation: No federal power to tax; depended on states for funds.

  • Defense: No national army draft; could not compel contributions.

  • Currency: No unified currency; complicated commerce.

  • Judiciary: No national Supreme Court to interpret law.

  • Executive: No executive to enforce laws.

  • Trade: Couldn’t regulate interstate commerce.

  • Amendments: Required unanimity; legislation required 9/13 states.

  • Enforcement: No mechanism to compel state compliance.

The Annapolis Convention

• Purpose: Address commerce and coordination problems; set the stage for the Constitutional Convention.

Debt and economic crisis in post-revolutionary America

• Issues: Depressed trade, currency instability, mounting war debt; exacerbated by federal incapacity.

Civil unrest and the danger of rebellion

• Context: Economic distress and weak government fueled instability.

Shay’s Rebellion: Crisis and reconciliation

• Event: Armed protest against foreclosures in MA; attack on federal arsenal.

• Significance: Exposed the Articles’ weakness; motivated calls for a stronger central government.

2.2 The constitutional convention

Two big issues: representation and power

• Virginia Plan: Bicameral, representation by population (favored large states).

• New Jersey Plan: Unicameral, equal state representation (favored small states).

• The Great (Connecticut) Compromise: Bicameral Congress—House by population; Senate equal.

Individual rights

• Outcome: Demand for a Bill of Rights led to immediate amendments after ratification; protections for due process, speech, religion, etc.

Representation in Congress

• House of Representatives: Apportioned by population; frequent elections to reflect public sentiment.

• Senate: Equal representation; stability and deliberation.

House of Representatives

• Design: 435 members; districts drawn by states; smaller constituencies; 2-year terms; initiates revenue bills.

• Leadership: Speaker (constitutional office), majority/minority leaders, whips.

Senate

• Design: 100 members; statewide constituencies; 6-year terms staggered by class; advice and consent on appointments/treaties.

• Leadership: Vice President (President of the Senate—tie-breaks, counts electoral votes), President pro tempore (honorary; fourth in presidential succession), majority/minority leaders, whips.

Gerrymandering

• Definition: Drawing districts to advantage a party/incumbent.

• Tactics:

  • Cracking: Dilute opposition across districts.

  • Packing: Concentrate opposition into a few districts.

  • Hijacking/Kidnapping: Force incumbents into primaries or relocate them.

• Cases: Baker v. Carr (“one person, one vote”), Shaw v. Reno (racial gerrymandering violates Equal Protection absent compelling interest).

Slavery: A fateful compromise

• Three-Fifths Compromise: Enslaved persons counted as 3/5 for apportionment.

• Compromise on importation: Deferred abolition of importation; illustrates tensions between rights and power.

2.3 Principles of American government

Separation of powers

• Core: Legislative makes laws; executive enforces; judiciary interprets.

• Rationale: Prevent concentration of power; each branch checks the others.

The legislative branch

• Powers: Taxing, spending (power of the purse), regulating commerce, declaring war, establishing courts, naturalization, post offices, militia.

• Limits & checks: Oversight of executive; confirmations; impeachment; can override veto; cannot violate constitutional rights.

House of Representatives

• Special powers: Initiates revenue bills; more rules-bound (Rules Committee: open vs closed rules).

• Committees: Standing, select, joint, conference; markup; pigeonhole; discharge petition.

Senate

• Special powers: Confirms appointments; ratifies treaties; filibuster; cloture (60 votes); riders and no closed rules.

The executive branch

• Powers: Commander in Chief; treaties (with Senate ratification); appointments; State of the Union; ensure laws are executed; receive ambassadors; commission officers; pardons and reprieves.

• Limits & checks: War Powers Resolution constrains unilateral troop deployment; impeachment; court review; budget constraints; treaty ratification.

Roles of the president

• Chief executive: Runs the executive; appoints leaders; issues executive orders; claims executive privilege.

• Chief legislator: Agenda setting; State of the Union; signs/vetoes; uses bully pulpit.

• Chief diplomat: Treaties, executive agreements; receives ambassadors.

• Commander in Chief: Military leadership; relies on Congress for funding.

• Head of state: Ceremonial duties; national unity.

The judiciary

• Powers: Judicial review; original and appellate jurisdiction; interpret Constitution and laws.

• Limits & checks: Appointment by President; confirmation by Senate; Congress can alter jurisdiction; amendments can overturn decisions; reliance on executive/state compliance.

Making changes to the constitution

• Amendment process (standard):

  • Proposal: 2/3 vote in both houses.

  • Ratification: 3/4 of state legislatures (or state conventions for specific amendments).

• Convention route: 2/3 of states petition Congress (never used).

• Use cases: 21st Amendment ratified by state conventions.

An uncertain future

• Observation: Power distribution shifts with politics, crises, and societal change; courts’ constitutional interpretation central to change.

2.4 Ratification of the U.S. Constitution

Federalist Paper No. 10: Blunting the power of factions

• Argument: Large republic disperses factional power; multiple interests prevent tyranny.

• Anti-Federalist dissent: Skepticism that a large republic can remain cohesive.

Tyranny of the majority, tyranny of the minority

• Concern: Majority may oppress minorities; minority factions may obstruct governance.

• Remedy: Structure of representation and extended republic.

Federalist No. 51: Sharing power to prevent tyranny

• Argument: Separation of powers and checks and balances control government and itself; divide legislative (strongest) to reduce its power; veto strengthens executive balance.

• Access points: Multiple ways stakeholders influence policy (Congress, President, Courts).

A Bill of Rights

• Purpose: Protect individual liberties against federal power; anti-Federalist demand.

The founders’ motives

• Pragmatism: Safeguard property, rights, and stability; balance liberty with order.

Chapter 3: Federalism

3.1 Conflict over marijuana

• Illustration: State policies can diverge from federal law; supremacy clause and federal enforcement discretion shape outcomes; demonstrates federalism tensions in moral/health policy.

3.2 The states, the national government, and federalism

Systems of government

• Confederal, federal, unitary: Allocation of sovereignty and authority varies as above.

National and state powers

• Delegated (enumerated): Currency, interstate/international trade, war, treaties, post offices, lower courts, naturalization, patents/copyrights, armed forces, Necessary and Proper.

• Reserved (10th Amendment): Licensing, intrastate business, elections, local gov, justice system, education, militia, public health/safety/welfare.

• Concurrent: Taxation, roads, courts, charter banks/corporations, eminent domain, debts, borrowing.

The due process, equal protection, commerce, necessary and proper, and supremacy clauses

• Due process: Substantive (fairness of laws) and procedural (fairness of application).

• Equal protection: Applies to state actions; basis for Baker v. Carr, Shaw v. Reno.

• Commerce: Defines federal regulation authority; limited in U.S. v. Lopez.

• Necessary and Proper: Implied powers (McCulloch—bank justified).

• Supremacy: Federal law prevails over conflicting state law.

The Tenth Amendment: Powers of the state governments

• Principle: Powers not delegated to the U.S. nor prohibited to states are reserved to states or the people.

Obligations among states (Article IV)

• Full Faith and Credit: Recognize other states’ civil laws/records/rulings.

• Privileges and Immunities: No unjustified discrimination against citizens of other states.

• Extradition: Return those accused of crimes to the state where offense occurred.

3.3 Federalism in action

The Marshall Court: Expanding national power

• Marbury v. Madison: Judicial review.

• McCulloch v. Maryland: Implied powers and supremacy; states cannot tax the national bank.

McCulloch v. Maryland — Supreme Court case

• Facts: Maryland taxed the national bank branch; cashier refused to pay.

• Clauses: Necessary and Proper; Supremacy.

• Holding: Bank is constitutional; federal law prevails where conflict exists.

• Principle: Laws upholding the Constitution’s spirit stand if not prohibited.

The Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments

• 13th: Abolishes slavery.

• 14th: Citizenship, due process, equal protection; foundation for civil rights and representation cases.

• 15th: Voting rights regardless of race.

Shifting from dual to cooperative federalism

• Dual (“layer cake”): Separate spheres; minimal overlap.

• Cooperative (“marble cake”): Shared responsibilities; New Deal expanded federal role.

• Drivers: Industrialization, 16th Amendment (income tax), interstate problems, civil rights, disasters, presidents’ agendas.

• Examples: Interstate highway system (mixed funding and standards), joint investigations (Oklahoma City bombing).

3.4 Modern American federalism

Grants-in-aid

• Categorical grants: Specific uses; strings attached; favored by those who support federal control.

• Block grants: Broad purposes; few strings; favored by those who support state autonomy.

Devolution and block grants

• Devolution: Shifting control to states (Nixon welfare reform, Reagan new federalism); can ebb and flow with political climate.

• Mandates: Requirements for states to comply with federal rules; unfunded mandates impose compliance without money (e.g., Americans with Disabilities Act).

Education policy

• Examples: No Child Left Behind (accountability standards), Race to the Top incentives; illustrate conditional grants and national goals influencing state policy.

Federalism and public policy: Management of COVID-19

• Observation: National guidance, state police powers, local implementation; federal-state interplay in crisis management.

3.5 The Supreme Court and modern federalism

United States v. Lopez: Preserving states’ authority

• Issue: Gun-Free School Zones Act; federal claim via commerce clause.

• Holding: 5–4 for Lopez; gun possession is not economic activity; limiting inference chains preserves state police powers.

Same-sex marriage

• Context: Federalism debates over recognition; ultimately national resolution through due process and equal protection principles (notes emphasize clause framework rather than case specifics).

Abortion

• Context: Federalism and rights interplay; courts’ interpretations shift state and federal roles (notes provide framework rather than case specifics).

Chapter 4: Congress

4.1 Senate and House: Structures, powers, and functions of Congress

Baker v. Carr — Supreme Court case

• Issue: Tennessee failed to redistrict despite population shifts.

• Clauses: Equal Protection; Cases or Controversies; Supreme Court jurisdiction.

• Holding: Federal courts can enforce equal protection in legislative districting; established “one person, one vote.”

Shaw v. Reno — Supreme Court case

• Issue: North Carolina’s 12th district; racial gerrymandering to create minority-majority district.

• Clause: Equal Protection.

• Holding: 5–4; remanded to test fairness; racial gerrymandering triggers strict scrutiny and requires compelling state interest.

Constituency: The boundaries of representation

• House vs. Senate: House’s smaller constituencies increase responsiveness; Senate’s statewide constituencies increase deliberation.

• Apportionment: Census every 10 years; states redraw districts; some entire states are single districts.

Institutional factors: The advantages of incumbents

• Incumbency: >90% re-election rates; district design, name recognition, fundraising, constituent service.

Maximizing the incumbency advantage

• Tactics: Casework, committee assignments aligned to district needs, media, fundraising networks.

4.3 The organization of Congress

Political parties in Congress

• Leadership roles: Speaker (House), majority/minority leaders, whips; set agendas, coordinate votes.

The committee system

• Types: Standing (permanent), select (temporary), joint (both chambers), conference (reconcile bills).

• Process: Markup sessions; expert testimony; pigeonholing; discharge petitions.

Norms of behavior

• Collaboration: Logrolling, caucus discipline; seniority influences chairs and ranking members.

4.4 Legislative bills

The legislative process

• Introduction: Sponsored by a member; numbering resets every two years.

• Referral to committee: Most bills die; committee majority aligns with chamber majority party; markup reviews content.

• House Rules Committee: Sets debate/amendment conditions (open vs closed rule).

• Floor consideration: Votes in each chamber.

• Resolving differences: Conference committee reconciles versions; returns for final votes.

• Presidential action: Sign/veto; pocket veto at session end; override with 2/3 in both chambers.

4.5 Congress and budget

Setting the federal budget

• OMB: Assembles agency requests; sends to Congress.

• CBO: Scores, supports congressional budget work; budget broken down to committees.

Taxation, deficits, and debts

• Power of the purse: Congress controls appropriations and conditions (funding carrots/sticks).

• Mandatory spending: ~60% (requires new law to change); includes entitlements.

• Interest on national debt: ~14%.

• Discretionary spending: ~27%; 40–50% of discretionary often defense.

Congress and public policy: Social insurance

• Context: Budget choices reflect values (Social Security, Medicare) and economic conditions.

Government shutdowns

• Mechanism: Failure to pass appropriations; non-essential workers furloughed; essential work continues under constraints.

4.6 Congressional behavior and the challenges of representation

Acting in Congress

• Pressures: Party leadership, President (jawboning), interest groups/PACs, constituents; personal ideology and religion.

Roles of members of Congress

• Delegate role: Mirrors constituents’ preferences.

• Trustee role: Uses independent judgment for the public good.

• Politico role: Blended approach, issue-dependent.

Representing constituents

• Tools: Casework, sponsorships, district projects (earmarks not allowed in House per note), committee choices.

The problem of partisanship

• Effect: Gridlock; difficulty compromising; affects oversight and legislation.

Chapter 5: American presidency

5.1 Requirements for and powers of the presidency

Selection, qualifications for office, and length of terms

• Qualifications: Constitutional requirements (age, residency, citizenship).

• Terms: Four-year terms; succession rules.

• Electoral College: 538 electors; 270 to win; balances state and population interests.

Federalist No. 70

• Argument: Energetic, unitary executive improves accountability and efficacy; single executive under scrutiny prevents abuse; term limits proposed as a check.

Presidential powers

• Expressed (Article II, Sections 2 & 3):

  • Commander in Chief.

  • Reprieves and pardons.

  • Treaties (with Senate ratification).

  • Appointments (judges, ambassadors, officers).

  • Fill vacancies during Senate recess.

  • State of the Union; convene/adjourn Congress in special circumstances.

  • Receive ambassadors/ministers.

  • Take Care Clause (faithful execution).

  • Commission all officers.

• Inherent (implied from Take Care Clause):

  • Executive orders: Direct enforcement of statutes/SCOTUS rulings; enforce constitutional provisions; guide treaty administration; shape regulatory practices.

  • Executive agreements: Less formal than treaties; do not require Senate ratification; non-binding on subsequent presidents.

  • Executive privilege: Withhold confidential communications or national security information from Congress/courts (limited by court decisions).

5.2 Roles of the president

Chief executive

• Functions: Appointments; manages executive agencies; issues executive orders; claims executive privilege.

Chief diplomat

• Functions: Negotiates treaties (Senate ratification); executive agreements; receives ambassadors.

Chief legislator

• Functions: State of the Union; agenda setting; signs/vetoes; uses bully pulpit to influence Congress and public.

Commander in chief

• Functions: Directs military; mobilizes forces; relies on Congress for funding; wartime resolutions (Gulf of Tonkin).

5.3 Checks on presidential power

The War Powers Resolution

• Limits: Requires notification to Congress; limits troop deployments without authorization (60 days + 30 withdrawal); contested by presidents.

Impeachment

• Process: House impeaches by majority; Senate tries with Chief Justice; removal requires 2/3.

• Practice: No president removed; examples include Johnson (near removal), Nixon (resigned), Clinton (acquitted), Trump (acquitted).

Court decisions

• U.S. v. Nixon: Executive privilege is not absolute; must yield to due process in criminal investigations.

• INS v. Chadha: Legislative veto unconstitutional.

• Clinton v. City of New York: Line-item veto unconstitutional for President.

5.4 The modern presidency

The vice presidency

• Role: President of the Senate; tie-breaker; counts electoral votes; succession and advisory functions.

The first spouse

• Influence: Public advocacy; informal policy engagement.

The Executive Office of the President

• Components: Chief of Staff; National Security Council; Domestic Policy Council; Office of Management and Budget; Council of Economic Advisors; U.S. Trade Representative.

• Function: Policy development, crisis management, budgeting, economic advice.

The president and a partisan Congress

• Dynamics: Unified vs divided government affect agenda and gridlock; coalition building essential.

The president and public opinion

• Bully pulpit: Direct communication to shape public pressure; approval ratings influence bargaining capacity.

The aftermath of the 2020 election and peaceful transfer of power

• Context: Highlights constitutional norms and the importance of legitimacy in transitions.

The modern presidency in context

• Observation: Expanded informal powers; reliance on EOP; constant media scrutiny; complex interbranch relations.

Chapter 6: The federal judiciary

6.1 The Constitution and the federal judiciary

Article III: The federal judiciary in the Constitution

• Design: Establishes Supreme Court; authorizes inferior courts; delineates jurisdiction (original/appellate).

Ratification: Antifederalist concerns and the Federalist response

• Concerns: Judiciary overpowering state courts; life tenure leading to corruption.

• Response (Federalist No. 78): Judiciary is “least dangerous”; judicial review checks legislature; life tenure ensures independence.

Federalist No. 78

• Core: Judicial independence; courts interpret the law; rely on other branches for enforcement (no “sword” or “purse”).

Congress builds the judiciary

• Action: Creates lower federal courts; alters jurisdiction; structures appeals.

Appointment to the federal judiciary

• Process: President nominates; Senate confirms; life tenure “during good behavior”; judges can be impeached for high crimes and misdemeanors (14 federal judges impeached; 8 removed).

Politics and Supreme Court nominations

• Reality: Ideological contests; ABA evaluations; interest group engagement; senatorial courtesy in lower court appointments.

6.2 John Marshall and the power of the Supreme Court

The election of 1800; Judiciary Act of 1801

• Issue: Midnight appointments; commissions not delivered; political contest over judiciary’s authority.

Politics and the power of the Supreme Court

• Marshall’s strategy: Establish Court’s legitimacy and power through principled decisions.

Marbury v. Madison and the establishment of judicial review

• Outcome: Judiciary Act provision unconstitutional; Court asserts power to review legislative acts; cornerstone of constitutional law.

The implications of Marshall’s decision

• Effect: Solidifies separation of powers; empowers courts to check Congress and President; enhances rule of law.

6.3 Organization of the federal judiciary

Criminal and civil cases

• Criminal: Government prosecutes offenses against society; grand jury indictments; petit juries decide verdicts; beyond a reasonable doubt; plea bargains common.

• Civil: Disputes between private parties; plaintiff vs defendant; preponderance of evidence (~51%); damages or equity remedies.

The state courts

• Role: Interpret state law; trial and appellate levels; parallel to federal structure.

The federal district courts

• Original jurisdiction: Civil and criminal trials; determine guilt/liability; 94 districts; juries common.

The appellate courts

• Function: Review issues of law; no juries; panels of judges; 13 circuits; often final unless SCOTUS grants certiorari.

The Supreme Court

• Composition: Collegial court (9 justices); primarily appellate jurisdiction; issues of law, not fact; relies on briefs, oral arguments, and opinions.

6.4 Judicial decision-making and checks on the judicial branch

Theories of constitutional interpretation: Judicial restraint and judicial activism

• Judicial restraint: Defer to elected branches; use judicial review sparingly.

• Judicial activism: Willing to overturn legislation to protect rights or correct injustices.

Supreme Court and policymaking

• Mechanisms: Setting precedent; interpreting broad constitutional principles; constrained by appointments, jurisdiction changes, amendments, and compliance.

Process by which cases reach the Supreme Court

• Certiorari: Four-justice rule to grant review; justiciability and standing required; lower court avenues exhausted; government often participates via Solicitor General (“tenth justice”).

• Opinions: Unanimous, majority, concurring, dissenting; shape future law.

Limits on Court power

• External checks: Amendments; appointments; jurisdiction statutes; legislative responses; executive and state compliance.

Chapter 7: The federal bureaucracy

7.1 How the bureaucracy is organized

Development of the American federal bureaucracy

• Evolution: Growth with national programs and crises; professionalization via merit systems.

7.2 The structure of the modern federal bureaucracy

Federal bureaucrats

• Merit system: Hiring/promotion based on skills and experience; OPM administers; Merit Systems Protection Board safeguards whistleblowers.

Iron triangles and issue networks

• Iron triangle: Agency + congressional committee + interest group coordinate policy; exchange support, oversight, and regulation.

• Issue networks: Broader coalitions (media, experts, advocates) shape complex policy domains.

Executive Office of the President and White House Office

• EOP: Policy development and management (NSC, DPC, OMB, CEA, USTR).

• White House Office: Closest advisers; Senate confirmation not required; high influence.

Executive departments

• Secretaries: Senate-confirmed leaders; expertise aligned with department missions (e.g., AG is a lawyer; Agriculture often from ag states).

• Undersecretaries/Senior Executive Service: Appointed; responsive to White House priorities.

Government corporations

• Examples: Amtrak, USPS (formerly cabinet-level); Corporation for Public Broadcasting (PBS funded by mixed subsidies).

Regulatory agencies and commissions

• Independent regulatory commissions: Watchdogs with relative independence; quasi-legislative (rulemaking) and quasi-judicial (enforcement).

• Examples: FTC (fraud/advertising), SEC (investor protections), NRC (nuclear safety), FCC (communications), FDA (food/drugs), FERC (energy markets), OSHA (workplace safety).

• Boards: Commissioners appointed by President with Senate approval; staggered terms (3–14 years) reduce political pressure; policy may diverge from presidential preferences (e.g., Federal Reserve Board).

7.3 Bureaucratic rulemaking, authority, discretion, and enforcement

Defining the problem and getting Congress to act

• Legislative gaps: Agencies fill in specifics through rulemaking; Congress sets broad goals.

Implementation, rulemaking, advising, and representation

• Process: Notice-and-comment; public hearings; consult industry and stakeholders; publish rules.

• Alliances: Iron triangles and issue networks facilitate and complicate policymaking.

Evaluation and (maybe) termination

• Oversight: Congress reviews performance; can amend statutes or defund programs; courts review legality.

Deregulation

• Argument: Market competition suffices; regulation is costly and time-consuming.

• Counter: Public goods and externalities often require guardrails.

7.4 Holding the bureaucracy accountable

Controlling the bureaucracy

• Congress: Confirms appointees; defines jurisdiction; funds programs; investigates; subpoenas.

• President: Appoints leaders; sets priorities; uses budgets; OMB oversight.

• Courts: Review legality of rules and enforcement actions.

• Hatch Act (1939; revised 1993): Maintains neutrality—bureaucrats can vote, join parties, display political support; cannot run for office, solicit funds from subordinates, or make political speeches in official capacities.

Integrated vocabulary and concepts (from “all notes”)

• Federalist Papers: Essays (Madison, Hamilton, Jay) advocating ratification and explaining constitutional design (Nos. 10, 51, 70, 78).

• Faction: Group of citizens united by interests adverse to others; controlled by large republic and representation (Fed. 10).

• Bully pulpit: President’s platform to influence public and pressure Congress.

• Delegate role: Representative votes per constituents’ expressed preferences.

• Trustee role: Representative uses independent judgment for common good.

• Politico role: Hybrid approach; issue-dependent.

• Discharge petition: Forces a House bill out of committee for floor vote.

• Discretionary spending: Annual appropriations; defense forms large share.

• Mandatory spending: Automatic expenditures (entitlements); requires law change to alter.

• Divided government: Different parties control Presidency and Congress; often increases gridlock.

• Executive agreement: International agreement not requiring Senate ratification; less formal and non-binding on subsequent presidents.

• Executive order: Directive with force of law guiding enforcement and administration.

• Gerrymandering: Partisan manipulation of district lines (packing/cracking).

• Limited government: Powers restricted by Constitution; rights protected.

• Gridlock: Policy stalemate due to polarization or institutional checks.

• Iron triangle: Agency–committee–interest group alliance shaping policy.

• Judicial branch: Interprets laws; exercises judicial review; independent through life tenure.

• Supremacy clause: Federal law supersedes conflicting state law.

• Judicial activism: Willingness to overturn laws to protect rights or correct injustices.

• Judicial restraint: Deference to elected branches; narrow use of review.

• Judicial review: Courts invalidate unconstitutional laws/actions (Marbury).

• Politico role: See above; blended representative strategy.

• Precedent/Stare decisis: Prior decisions guide future rulings.

• Redistricting: Redrawing districts after census; equal populations required.

• Joint resolution: Legislative measure requiring approval by both chambers; used for budget and some statutory changes; can have force of law with presidential signature.

• Concurrent resolution: Expresses sentiment or sets rules for both chambers; does not have force of law; no presidential signature.

• Simple resolution: Passed by one chamber to set internal rules or express sentiment.

• Democracy: System of self-government; in U.S., representative republicanism.

• Popular sovereignty: Consent of the governed as source of authority.

• Mercantilism: Economic doctrine favoring national power via trade regulation; background to colonial tensions.

• Natural rights: Life, liberty, property (Locke).

• Social contract: People grant authority to government to maintain order; retain right to alter when rights violated.

• Political institutions: Formal structures of government (branches, agencies).

• Grand Committee: Mediated key convention compromises (representation).

• Bicameral/Unicameral: Two-chamber vs single-chamber legislature.

• Civil society groups: Non-government organizations engaging in public issues.

• Republic: Government of elected representatives.

• Liberty: Freedom from undue government control; foundational value.

• Treaty: Formal agreement between nations; requires Senate ratification.

• Shays’ Rebellion: Catalyst exposing Articles’ weaknesses.

• Articles of Confederation: First U.S. government; weak central authority.

• Separation of powers/Checks and balances: Structural safeguards against tyranny.

• House/Senate/President: Institutions with defined roles and checks.

• Electoral College: Indirect presidential election system.

• Amendment process: Methods to change the Constitution.

• Congressional action/Presidential action/Court action/Party action/Technology: Drivers of constitutional change and policy evolution.

• Federalists/Anti-Federalists: Ratification advocates vs skeptics.

• Madisonian system of government: Separation of powers with checks and balances; extended republic.

• Constitution: Supreme law establishing federal structure and rights.

• Reserved/Implied/Expressed/Concurrent powers: Power categories across federalism.

• Necessary and Proper clause: Basis for implied powers.

• Dual/Cooperative federalism: Separate vs shared responsibilities (layer vs marble cake).

• Mandates/Unfunded mandates: Federal requirements for states; may lack funding.

• Block/Categorical grants: Flexible vs specific federal funding.

• Revenue sharing: Federal funds distributed to states; policy tool for influence.

• Full faith and credit/Writ of habeas corpus: Interstate recognition; protection against unlawful detention.

• Bills of attainder/Ex post facto laws: Prohibited legislative punishments and retroactive criminalization.

• Extradition/Privileges and immunities: Interstate legal cooperation and nondiscrimination.

• Stakeholders & institutions/Access points: Citizens, groups, officials engage via Congress, the President, Courts.

• Jurisdiction: Court authority to hear cases (original/appellate).

Court case connections (topics → cases)

• Judicial power: Marbury v. Madison → judicial review; separation of powers.

• Federalism & implied powers: McCulloch v. Maryland → Necessary and Proper; Supremacy.

• Commerce & federal limits: U.S. v. Lopez → limits on Commerce Clause.

• Representation & equality: Baker v. Carr → equal representation; “one person, one vote.”

• Race and districting: Shaw v. Reno → racial gerrymandering scrutiny.

• Executive constraints: U.S. v. Nixon → limits on executive privilege.

• Legislative checks: INS v. Chadha → legislative veto unconstitutional.

• Budgetary veto power: Clinton v. City of New York → line-item veto struck down.