Texas Government
Chapter 1: Political Culture and the People of Texas
Six Flags Over Texas
Spain (1519-1685 & 1690-1821)
France (1685-1690)
Mexico (1821-1836)
Republic of Texas (1836-1845)
United States of America (1845-1861 & 1865-present)
Confederate States of America (1861-1865)
Dates
1829
Mexican government abolished slavery
1830
Mexico restricted U.S. immigration and increased military presence in Texas
1831
55 delegates from Anglo-American settlements gathered to demand things from Mexico
1835
Stephen F. Austin returned to Texas and skirmishes had broken out between Texas and Mexican troops
1836
Texas declared independence at Washington-on-the-Brazos
February 1836
Battle of the Alamo began
March 1836
Consultation delegates meet again and declare independence from Mexico
April 1836
San Jacinto
1836-1945
Texas became Republic of Texas
Political Culture*
Moralistic culture
residents see the government as a means to a better society and promote the general welfare
residents expect politicians to be honest and put the interests of the people above their own
people view the political process in positive light
states with this culture tend to spend more per capita on programs such as public and higher education, green energy, public health, and public transportation
Individualistic Culture
residents in this culture tend to believe that there is no single “common good”
there is only each person’s or each group’s view of what is best for them
more selfish views of the government and politicians
states with this culture tend to spend less on public services and goods
some examples here in Texas is the state’s decision to refuse federal funds to expand the state’s Medicaid program and reductions in public school funding
Traditionalist Culture
still believes in the importance of the individual
this view does not frame the government as an evil outsider but rather a protector of what many call “traditional views”
like the Communitarian view, this culture views the government as necessary but with a different purpose
voting in this type of culture is viewed as a privilege so barriers are more likely to be placed
the government’s purpose is to shape the values of the community by codifying the values of the dominant group and securing their power
recent examples of this culture: anti-LGBTQ+ bills, banning of Abortions, and educational restrictions in public K-12 schools
Texas’s Political Culture*
Texas appears to have a mixture of both individualistic and Traditionalistic cultures
Parent Choice school vouchers and Ten Commandments
Texas politics are generally pro-business, with low government regulations
we call ourselves a freedom state
voter turnout in the most recent presidential election was only 11.3 million out of 18.6 million voters
Geography of Texas
Texas occupies 7% of the total water and land area of the U.S.
second only to Alaska in size
Texas encompasses multiple different geographical regions
this has led to many different developments and life perspectives
Coastal Plains
Pine Belt
Post Oak Belt
Blackland Belt
Coastal Prairies
Lower Rio Grande Valley
Rio Grande Plains
Nort Central Plains
Interior Lowlands
Western Rolling Plains
Grand Prairie
Eastern and Western Cross Timbers
Great Plains
High Plains
Edwards Plateau
Toyah Basin
Llano Basin
Basin and Range
Guadalupe Mountains
Davis Mountains
Big Bend
Upper Rio Grande Valley
Industries that shaped the state
cattle
first brought by the Spaniards in 1960s
colonist came to Texas in 1830s (farmers)
cattle ranching moved to north central frontier in 1860s
by 1995, Texas led nation cattle production
cotton
first grown by Spanish missionaries in 1600s
Spain allowed immigrants to grow cotton in Texas in 1820
railroad extension made cotton principal crop in 1920s
lumber
railroad
influence of railroad grew in 1800s
farmers formed coalition against price gouging in 1870s
creation of Railroad commission in 1891
oil
discovery in 1894
M. Guffey Petroleum Company (Gulf) 1992
refineries built after Houston Ship Channel in 1914
oil exploration moved to Permian Basin 19130s
fracking revolution early 2000s
The People of Texas
as of 2023, over 30.3 million residents
second most populous state, after California
diverse population
Hispanics
Hispanic populations in Texas became Mexican Texans after 1836
after Civil War, many Mexicans came to Texas to work farms and on railroads
has increased throughout the years
African American
people of African descent have been in Texas since Spanish Colonial era
Anglo immigrants brought enslaves people into Texas to work fields
after civil war, many former slaves stayed in Texas
Texas ranks highly in political engagement among African Americans
Asian American
Vietnamese, Chinese, Filipino, Korean, and Japanese Americans dominate Asian population in Texas
shrimp and fishing industry attracted many in 1970s
Asian Texans have traditionally voted Republican
Native Americans
settlements discovered in Texas well over 12,000 years old
2nd president of Texas declared an “exterminating war” on natives in Texas
between 1950s and 1980s, the federal gov. resettled ~40,000 natives in the DFW
Age
younger population than other states
most of the older population lives in rural counties
aging and disabled population have medical challenges that stale will have to address in ear future
Income
poverty rate of 15%
children in poverty 22% and seniors in poverty is 11%
overall high need for social welfare programs
Religion
Christian dominant
Mexican Texans kept Roman Catholic faith
African Americans have been Baptists
Modern Texans have been more religious than historical counterparts
Education
second lowest rate of high school graduates at 85% only 33% have bachelors or higher
Gender
evenly split
first female governor was Miriam Ferguson in 1924
Barbara Jordan was first black woman elected to Texas Senate in 1996
Rural vs. Urban
btwn. 2010-2018 ~3 million ppl. moved into four metro regions in Texas
large metro areas are younger, more diverse, less Republican
Chapter 2 & 3: Federalism and the Texas Constitution
Federalism Defined*
Declaring independence in 1776 meant the rejection of a highly centralized Unitary government under a new king in the U.S.
because of this the first constitution of the U.S. created a system known as Confederal
first constitution of the U.S. was called the “Articles of Confederation”
the third system that was crated is what we call Federalism
designed to divide the power between multiple levels of government
Federalism around the world share 5 characteristics:
2 levels of government
written National Constitution
formally allocated legislative, judicial, and executive authority for separation of powers
National Courts
Subnational gov represented in upper house of national legislature
Federalism and the Constitution
constitution contains several provisions that allocate powers to the national and state government
these direct the function of Federalism
enumerated powers, which define the federal government’s authority
coining money, postal service and interstate & foreign commerce
constitution also included Elastic Clause
has allowed the national government to expand its role and power
Supremacy Clause
Article VI of the Constitution declares that the federal law are the supreme law of the land
Federal alw prevails if within hte National Gov’s constitutional authority
Federal vs State: Marijuana
Marijuana is illegal federally but 15 states have legalized it
the Fedeal Gov/ could act in these areas but has so far chosen not to
The Full Faith and Credit Clause was put to the test in the 1993 SC case Baehr v. Lewin
Hawaii SC ruled the state’s ban on same-sex marriage as
unconstitutional
Congress passed the Defense of Marriage Act 1996
Early Power Struggles
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) just five years later also involved the
power and authority of the national government over the states
In this case Ogden obtained an exclusive license from New York
State to operate steamboat ferries between New York City and New Jersey
Ogden sued Gibbons who had been operating ferries along the
same route under a coasting license issued by the federal
government
Chief Justice Marshall stated “the acts of New York must yield to
the law of Congress”
Dual Federalism*
Dual Federalism began in the late 1870s.
SC blocked attempts from both sides trying to overstep.
Economic philosophy at the time loathed government interference in the process of Industrial Development.
This economic development led to Federal regulation more focused on promoting market competition.
Anti-trust acts and interstate commerce regulation.
Does this evolution make sense?
Following the Civil War
Cooperative Federalism*
The Great Depression of the 1930s brought economic hardships never witnessed before in the US.
25% unemployment, stock market lost 50% of value, and GDP shrunk by 25%.
This gave birth to Cooperative Federalism.
Both state and federal gov. would coordinate their actions to solve major problems.
Ex. Great Depression and Civil Rights
The New Deal programs from FDR went against Dual Federalism.
These acts changed the relationship Americans had with the Federal Gov.
It provided things such as:
Social Security
Unemployment
Agricultural subsidies
In the 1960s LBJ’s Great Society Programs expanded the national government’s role with:
Medicaid and Medicare
Grants
in order for the National Gov. to address problems it needs participation from the State governments
Intergovernmental Grants offer positive financial incentives
Likened to a “Carrot” at the end of a stick to entice someone towards a goal
Land Grants were donated to support:
Roads, Railroads, Canals, schools
Prairie View A&M and Florida A&M
During hard economic times such as the Great Recession of 2007-2009 and COVID-19 pandemic of 2020-2021, grants provide much needed fiscal relief
Categorical Grants
The National government factors using Categorical grants to
transfer funds to state and local authorities because this gives
them more control and discretion in how the money is spent
In 2019, the federal government distributed 1,274 grants, 1253 of
which were categorical grants and only 21 were block grants
One of the reasons why Categorical grants are more popular is
because elected officials can take credit
Another reason is that it allows federal government officials
greater command over program performance
Block Grants
A common criticism against Block Grants is that they lack
mechanisms to hold states and local admins accountable for
outcomes
Block Grants have been championed for their cost-cutting effects
Paul Ryan (R-WI) tried during his time as House Speaker tried to
convert Medicaid into a Block Grant
He estimated it could save the federal government $732
Billion over 10 yrs
Creeping Categorization examples:
Set Asides
Certain share of funds for specific purpose
Cost Ceilings
Cap on funding other purposes
Mandates
The federal government has used mandates increasingly since the
1960s to promote national objectives in policy areas such as the
environment, civil rights, education, and homeland security
One type of mandate threatens civil and criminal penalties for
state and local authorities that fail to comply with them across the
board in all programs. Another one provides for the suspension of
federal grant money
These are commonly referred to as crosscutting
mandates/requirements
Ex. Covid Mask Mandate
The Texas Constitution*
Texas has had several constitutions
1827 Texas as a part of Mexico
1836 The Republic of Texas
1845 Texas as part of the U.S
1861 Texas as part of the Confederate
1866 Texas back in the US
1869 Texas reconstruction constitution
1876 The current Texas constitution
The Texas Constitution of Today
Texas went through 6 constitutions in 40 years yet has kept the same one for the last 150+ years
There has been many changes and amendments over the years to keep up the changing time
The structure of the current constitution is:
Preamble
17 Articles
More than 500 amendments
Amendment Process*
Texas has a low bar for amending the state constitution
simple majority of voters on legislator proposed amendments
The constitution has grown from 22,911 words in 1876 to over 19,000 words in the present day
second longest in the U.S.
while early voters were reluctant to pass amendments in more recent times it has become common for voters to approve most if not all amendment proposals
the language of the amendments can be confusing, vague, or misleading to voters
One example from 2021:
Proposition: Authorizing counties to issue bonds or notes to raise funds for transportation and infrastructure in underdeveloped areas. Cities and towns already have the authority to fund projects with this financing method
What has changed?
Article 1: Bill of rights
has grown from 29 sections to 34 sections
in 2005 Texas banned same sex marriage but a 2015 SC case overturned it. The constitution still remains but is considered deadwood
Article 2: Powers of Government
no changes
Article 3: Legislative Department
58 sections into 67 sections
final change came in 2019
Article 4: Executive Department
1,556 words to 4,272 words
1972 amendment expanded the executive terms from 2 to 4 years
Article 5: Judicial Department
28 sections to 32
only 2 sections have not been amended
Article 6: Sufferage
national civil rights movements have placed Texas’ voting rights under federal watch
Article 7: Education
15 to 20 sections
State’s role in education is primarily financial.
Article 8: Taxation and Revenue
Texas is a low tax state.
Amendments have passed in order to limit government taxation.
Article 9 and 11: Counties and Municipal corporations
12 sections added to Article 9 and 3 sections added to Article 11.
Articles 10, 12, 14: Railroads, Private Corporations, and Public Lands.
These have been reduced in size.
Limits on ownership, protections for individual stockholders, and changes to land ownership.
Article 13: Spanish and Mexican Land Titles
Removed in 1969 due to no outstanding disputes
Article 15: Impeachment
The process has not changed substantially since 1876.
Rare process only 2 officials have been impeached. Current AG Ken Paxton faced impeachment in 2023.
Article 16: General Provisions
Contains items not fit for any other article.
Many changes have occurred over the
years.
Article 17: Amendments
Some expansion no major changes.
Prospect for Revision*
People have complained that the Texas constitution is confusing with all the amendments and deadwood ones
In 1972 voters approved a constitutional convention to rewrite the constitution
The next legislative session in 1974 met but did not approve the proposed constitution with the necessary votes
While the constitution was rejected some legislators proposal individual amendment to change our current constitution
those amendments failed but sought to streamline the government
Chapter 7 & 8: Voting, Elections, and Political Participation in Texas
Federal Oversight of Texas Election Laws
the U.S. constitution doesn’t require all states to follow the same election format
there is varied registration and voting laws across the U.S. that cause controversy and intentional discrimination
in response, Congress passed 13th, 14th, &15th amendments
13th abolished slavery
14th guaranteed privileges and immunities to all
15th granted the right to vote to all U.S. citizens
in response to these amendments, many southern states enacted their own voter suppression practices
literacy tests
poll taxes
grandfather clauses
allowing only white people to vote
allowing only white people to run for office
allowing only white people to participate in the Texas Democratic Party
failing to stop voter intimidation
Texas never issued literacy tests or grandfather clause*
did use white primary, voter intimidation, and poll taxes
the taxes were abolished for national elections by the 24th amendment and for state elections two years later with Harper v. Virginia Board of Education
“white primary” was a way to block participation by black and Mexican-American voters when the Democratic party began calling itself a private club for Anglo citizens
the 1944 Smith v. Allwright Supreme Court case prohibited the white primary
The passage of the Voting Rights Act (VRA) in 1965 further restricted state laws that denied voting rights based on race
the VRA gave the U.S. AG the power to look over each time a state made changes to its voting laws and each time teh state drew new legislative district lines*
this was called preclearance
This preclearance was in effect for Texas and many other states for decades bc the national government didn’t trust these states not ot reimpose restrictions on voting
The Impact of Shelby County v. Holder
Federal oversight changed significantly after the controversial 2013 Supreme Court Case Shelby County v. Holder
the justices ruled in this case that federal review and preclearance was no longer required
many argued that federal overseight was needed since without states could impose obstacles for voters and with those obastacles in place make it hard for voters to vote out the “bad” law makers
immediate effects, within 24 hours of the ruling, Texas announced that it would implement a strict photo ID law
Texas ID laws are no longer as strict as before but voters are still confused by what is required leading to some not voting at all
Elections in Texas Today
To vote in Texas you first need to register to vote
This allows the government to determine if an applicant is qualified to vote
In Texas, a person must meet the following requirements:
be a U.S. citizen
be a resident of the Texas county
be at least 18 years old on election day
not a felon, unless fully discharge the sentence or pardoned
not be considered mentally incapacitated
have registration form 30 days prior to election day
Texas has 254 counties, each of them creating its own voting ballots, picking the machines, establishing early voting, choosing voting locations, and certifying the vote
In 2021 Governor Abbott made a voting bill a priority which:
Banned the use of drive-through voting
Banning 24 hour voting
Prohibiting election officials from sending applications for mail-in ballots to any person or address without an official request from the person
Requiring that mail-in ballots have the voter’s state ID number or SSN written on the outside of the envelope
Allowing poll watchers to be present at all voting locations and requiring that election officials give poll watchers access to voting areas and unobstructed views of each election interaction
Placing limits on the assistants who accompany any disabled voters
Types of Elections*
3 main types of elections:
Party Primary Elections
to determine which candidate will represent the parties
general elections
to determine which candidate will hold each office
special elections
for a variety of reasons such as to vote on constitutional amendments, fill vacancies, vote on bonds, etc.
Winning a general election for statewide office or legislative office in Texas does not require a majority of votes, thus no run-off election is needed
The Special elections that may appear on the calendar are:*
State constitutional amendment elections
Allows voters to consider changes to the state’s constitution
Bond elections
Asks voters to choose whether or not to authorize state or local governments to borrow money for projects
Local elections
Where voters choose mayors and city council members, school board members, special district members
Rollback elections
Allows voters to choose whether or not to decrease a jurisdiction’s property tax rate
Recall elections
Allows voters who live in home-rule cities to remove an official from office
Neutral example: In Groves, a city near Beaumont, a petition resulted in November recall election for city council member Cross Coburn following the release of controversial photos from an online dating app
Voter turnout in Texas*
States dominated by a moralistic culture will have fewer restrictions and higher voter turnout
Texas is dominated by a traditionalistic culture, which means they are more likely to have restrictions and lower voter turnout
Political Socialization is the process of how we hand down our culture from generation to generation
If you were socialized that government is most often good and trusted then you would be more likely to vote and participate in politics
If you were socialized that government is made up of people focused solely on their own desires, you are more likely to not care about politics and thus not participate and vote
The impact of Voter Turnout*
Texas has consistently had low voter turnout
The low voter turnout is problematic because of the varied and extreme ideological views
Polarization can be seen in who wins these elections and what issues are advanced
Politicians in order to win elections must move towards the views of the voters and party
This leads to general elections with two very strongly believing candidates
There are many factors involved in predicting the voter turnout and impact which issues get addressed
Candidates for local government can purchase “walk lists” from the county clerk’s office
A walk list is a list of street addresses at which at least one registered voter lives
Smart candidates will skip streets and homes that do not have registered voters since it would be more difficult to convince them to register then voter for them
This does then lead to local officials that only think about the wants and needs of those most likely to vote and not the ones that are not registered and didn’t vote for them
What influences your voting decision?*
3 Key Voting Decision-Making Factors
party affiliation
voter uses shortcut on voting for a candidate based upon their shared party identification
personal attributes
voter considers the candidate’s personal characteristics—including personality, background, and experiences
issue voting
voter considers the positions of a candidate and votes for candidate with views closest to their own
How do voters make their decision?*
Many people use vote based on party affiliation, which is useful in general elections but no primary elections
they do straight-ticket voting
we also see issue-voting
Voters will target an issue and then vote according to which politicians they think best addresses this issue
Voters sometimes use endorsements as cues when voting
If you trust a sitting official or interest group already it makes sense to trust their endorsement
Incumbency also plays a role, depending on your opinion of the current situation and hopes for the future
And finally voters also make their decision based on name recognition, candidate’s gender, race, age, experience, gut feeling, and physical characteristics
Activism and Running for Office
People that want to do more than just vote can involve themselves in voter registration and voter turnout efforts, in political campaigns, run
for office, participate in the local and state party organizations, participate through interest groups, and/or simply communicate with their elected officials on issues that are a priority to them
Running for office is also more than just having an idea or wanting office
Political Participation*
The most popular method of Political Participation is Voting
Attending Political Rallies, both in person and online
Donating to Political Campaigns
Responding to public opinion polls
Signing petitions
Actively contributing through social media
Commenting on political issues online and through social media
In order to achieve responsiveness, we need to engage in many different types of civic activities
Political participation is all about making opinions known, having them heard and attempting to influence the policy making process
Some political scientists argue that with advances in technology and social media is causing a decline in political participation
It is becoming easier for people to “join” large groups and not contribute to the issue
Engagement does not always require a significant interaction with others
But it does make sense why some people become turned away from politics and the processes behind lawmaking
Chapter 9: Political Parties
U.S. Political Parties
The idea of political factions dates back to the time of the Federalist papers
People work together to protect themselves from government and to advance their interests.
Interest groups and political parties are very similar but political parties try to directly influence public policy through their members who seek to win and hold public office.*
Political parties accomplish this by identifying and aligning sets of issues that are important to voters in the hopes of gaining support during elections.
Their position on issues is often presented in documents known as a party platform.
If successful, a party can create a large enough electoral coalition to
gain control of the government.
Once in power, the party then tries to deliver, to its voters and elites, the policy preferences they choose by electing its partisans to the government.
Winning elections and implementing
policy would be hard enough in simple political systems, but in a country as complex as the United States.
With three layers of government and three branches of government.
Political Parties must win elections and coordinate across the many governing bodies.
If a party takes too broad a position on issues, it might find itself in a situation where the members of the party disagree with one another
Components of Political Parties
Political parties can be divided into three layers:
Party-in-the-electorate
Party Organization
Party-in-government.
Another important topic is political ideology,
A certain set of ethical ideals, principles, doctrines, myths or symbols of a social movement, institution, class or large group that explains how society should work and offers some political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order
Liberalism aims at the preservation and extension of human, social, and civil rights as well as the government guaranteed provision of positive rights
They advocate strong civil liberties and social progressivism.
They believe that government action is needed in order for people to be as free as possible.
The government must thereby ensure the protection of rights
Conservatives generally wish to conserve the status quo, conserve morality, or conserve money.
While their views on individual policies vary among different sub groups, they overall support tax cuts and other limited government interference policies, oppose same-sex marriage, oppose abortion, oppose stricter gun control laws and favor increased military spending.
They also tend to favor color-blindness and oppose affirmative action. As well as favor state
governments over the federal government.
Moderates incorporate different aspects from liberalism and conservatism into their personal perspectives
Party-in-the-electorate
One of the most important functions of political parties is to select
candidates to run for office under the party label, which is currently done by the party-in-the-electorate.
Party identification is typically determined by the political party that an individual most commonly supports.
This can also become a social identity to some people
This identity usually develops early in a person’s life mainly through family and social influences.
Party identification can increase or even shift by motivating events or conditions in the country.
Recently we have seen increased partisan polarization, Democrats are becoming more liberal and Republicans are becoming more conservative.
Politics, partisan polarization may make it increasingly more difficult for politicians to compromise on critical policy issues
Those who consider themselves to be strong partisans, strong Democrats and strong Republicans respectively, tend to be the most faithful in voting for their party’s nominee for office
Even for more casual party identifiers, party does matter, because party identification often guides voters, who may know little about a particular issue or candidate, in casting their ballots.
This is especially evident in judicial races in Texas, for instance, when so little is known about the candidates
The Party Organization*
The second component of political parties includes voters who see their
party identification as something far beyond simply a shortcut to voting.
Members of the party organization are active members that are responsible for coordinating party behavior and supporting candidates.
They are responsible for building and maintaining the “brand” of the political party
There is a party organization at each level of government.
At the local level is the county-level organization, which is the workhorse of the party system*
This level takes on responsibilities including identifying and mobilizing potential voters and donors, identifying and training potential candidates for public office, and recruiting new members for the party
They are also responsible for finding rank and file members to serve as volunteers on Election Day
The State party organizations, a fair amount of political power is held by individuals in statewide office or in state-level legislative or judicial bodies
State organizations are responsible for creating a sense of unity among members of the state party
The state organization uses several key tools to get its members working together towards a common goal
First, it helps the party’s candidates prepare for state primary elections or caucuses that allow voters to choose a nominee to run for public office at either the state or national level
Second, state-level organizations usually accept greater fundraising responsibilities than do their local counterparts
While individual candidates are responsible for funding and running their own races, it is typically up to the state-level organization to coordinate some of this fundraising, along with fundraising for state-level campaigns such as Governor, Texas legislature, etc.
● Organization of the parties themselves is often discussed in terms of the permanent organization of the party and the temporary organization of the party
In terms of the permanent party organization, each election precinct elects a precinct chair and a county chair who will serve as members of the county executive committee which run the county primary and plan the county conventions
At the state level, there is a state executive committee, which includes a state chair and vice-chair
Regarding the temporary organization of the party voters at the precinct level hold conventions to select delegates to the county convention and to possibly submit resolutions that may eventually become part of the party platform
These county convention delegates elect delegates to the state level conventions who then hold a convention where nominees are certified for statewide office, a party platform is adopted, and a chair, vice-chair, and state executive committee is elected
In presidential election years, the state conventions select delegates for the national party conventions, elect delegates for the national party committee, and choose the party’s presidential electors to cast votes in the Electoral College if their party’s candidate wins the state’s popular vote
The local and state level party organizations take on the most responsibility for party activities
But they are largely invisible to most voters. The average citizen knows very little about the local party’s behavior
Most people are aware of the national party organization
Many Americans are more interested in the topics discussed at the national level than at the state or local level
Presidential elections and the behavior of the US Congress are far more likely to make the news broadcasts than county level officials
A second reason for the prominence of the national organization is that it usually coordinates the grandest spectacles in the life of a political party
Most voters are never aware of the numerous county-level meetings or coordinating activities
Primary elections, one of the most important events to take place at the state level, have a much lower turnout than the nationwide general election
The national party platform is formally adopted at the convention, as are the key elements of the strategy for contesting the national campaign
Rising stars are given time at the convention’s podium, to see which are able to connect with the party faithful.
For example, most observers credit Barack Obama’s speech at the 2004 Democratic National Convention with bringing him to national prominence.
National party conventions culminate in the formal nomination of the party nominees for the offices of president and vice president, and they mark the official beginning of the presidential competition between the two parties
The Party-in-Government
The third component of political parties in the US and in Texas is called the party-in-government
This includes party identifiers who have been elected or appointed to hold public office such as Greg Abbott
The biggest issue facing this relates to the US’s complex system of government, each level and unit has different constituencies that the office holder must satisfy
The person elected to the White house is more beholden to the national party than a member of Congress
The same would be true in Texas, the person elected governor has different priorities than a member of the Texas House from Lubbock
Historical Dominance of the Democratic Party
The 19th century culture in Texas was heavily influenced by the plantation culture of the Old South.
In these societies the government’s role was seen as being the preservation of social order and maintaining the economic and political power of those elites
The Democratic party of the late 1800s to the 1960s did this with laws restricting voting, providing few governmental services and protecting business owners
The Democrats established their dominance after the Civil War
A full century of Democratic Governors stretched between the departure of Republican Governor E.J. Davis (1874) and the election of Republican William P. Clements (1979)
In the post-Civil War era, two of the most important Republican figures in Texas were African Americans George T. Ruby and Norris Wright Cuney
Ruby was a black community organizer, director in the federal Freedmen’s Bureau, and leader of the Galveston Union League.
Cuney was biracial, whose wealthy, white planter father freed him and his siblings before the Civil War and arranged for his education in Pennsylvania
From 1902 through 1965, the Democratic-dominated state
legislature in Texas had virtually disenfranchised most blacks and many Latinos and poor whites through the imposition of the poll tax and white primaries.
Voter turnout in Texas declined dramatically following these disenfranchisement measures, and Southern voting turnout was far below the national average
At the national level, the Solid South exercised tremendous
power in Congress, as Democrats gained important committee
chairmanships by seniority and converted that power to funding and federal projects in their region
Federal funding for infrastructure projects as well as support for numerous military bases
They also shut down most of the conversation about civil rights for decades
Republicans Rising
One of the questions students most often ask is “how did the Democratic Party in the South go from being conservative, in favor of slavery, to the progressive party that wants to expand the national government’s roll?”
And “how did the Republican Party go from the party of Abraham Lincoln who wanted the national government to dictate to the states on slavery and other issues to the conservative, national government demonizing party it is today?”
This process began in the 1940s and 1950s. Some analysts suggest that the rebirth of the Republican Party in Texas among white conservatives can be traced to 1952
When Democratic Governor Allan Shivers clashed with the Truman Administration over the federal claim on the Tidelands
Shivers worked to help Republican (and Texas native) General Dwight D. Eisenhower to carry the state
In the late 1960s, Democratic strength was waning in Texas, particularly among residents of the expanding “country club suburbs” around Dallas and Houston.
The election to Congress of Republicans such as John Tower and George H. W. Bush in 1961 and 1966, respectively, reflected this trend
Nationally, outside of the South, Democrats began to move to the left of the ideological spectrum in the 1940s when Democratic President Franklin Roosevelt began to court the votes of black voters
In the 1960s, at the national level, many of the Democratic Party leaders supported the civil rights movement
The fight for civil rights legislation in the 1960s, led by Democratic President Lyndon Johnson (a Texan) further alienated southern Democrats
Following the passage of the Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act southern white democrats began to leave the party and slowly join the Republican Party
Sad Fact: Jimmy Carter was the last democratic presidential candidate to win Texas
Prior to 1992, a Democrat needed to win Texas to win the presidential
election, but in the 1992 election, Bill Clinton won while losing Texas
This result significantly reduced the power of Texas Democrats at the national level, as party leaders believed the state had become unwinnable
Both US Senate seats and the governor’s office have been held by Republicans since 1994
No statewide office has been held by a Democrat since then
At the state government level, the Texas legislature has been majority Republican since 2003 as well
What does the future hold?
Many scholars believe the future of political parties in Texas will be determined by population changes that have been occurring in Texas for many years and will continue to occur for decades to come.
People are moving to Texas in record numbers from other states and they will bring their political socialization and party affiliation with them, and this could influence which political party wins in Texas, as will birth rates among white, black, Hispanic and Asian voters
Religion
So what accounts for Republicans winning at such a high rate
includes:
More independent voters vote for
Republicans
More Democratic voters stay home.
Because of their dominance Republicans might attract better candidates, more funding and a larger volunteer network
Conservatives have tended to dominate social media in the state
Chapter 6: Local Governments
The relationship between local and state governments
There are more than 5,000 local governments in Texas.
For decades conservative Texas leaders favored the concept of “local control”
As voters in many urban areas began trending more progressive, favoring social justice and environmental regulations beyond those favored by state lawmakers
But local control does clash with legislature’s basic ideological values
The result we see played out often today
Big city officials and the conservative state legislature disagreeing.
Such as Austin, SA, Houston enacting city ordinances:
Banning the practice of oil and gas fracking
Banning ride sharing services
Prohibiting discrimination against transgender individuals.
Banning the open carry of firearms
Banning loud/amplified sound after certain times
Under Texas state government umbrella there are 254 counties, over 1200 cities, villages, and towns, over 3000 special purpose districts (over 1,000 of which are independent school districts)
County Government*
Counties deliver essential services to Texans.
They’re the functional arms of the state government and respond to local needs.
The counties have a lot of duties:
Providing law enforcement
Maintaining jails
Running the court system
Building and maintaining roads
47% of all Texas roads
Holding elections
Appraising property values
Counties fund those services mostly through: Property tax, sales tax, grants.
Counties vary how much they tax property, Williamson County tax rate at $0.399 per $100 because of the high value of property in the county.
Not every county collects sales tax.
Travis, Williamson, Hays, and Bastrop do not
County Government Structure*
The structure of the county government is defined in the state
constitution.
Which is why it is not surprising that the form closely follows the plural executive model of state government.
What is surprising is the constitution makes no allowance for population differences between counties.
County lines are not redrawn to create counties with equal population.
A county with 4+ million residents has the same governmental structure as a county with 6 residents
County Judge
A County Judge in Texas is primarily the chair of the county commissioners’ court and plays an executive role more often than a judicial role.
They also are the head of the county’s emergency management functions
Commissioners and Treasurer
For the legislative branch, each county is divided into four equal-size precincts and one county commissioner is elected from each precinct.
County Commissioners have almost unilateral control over the planning and construction of roads, bridges and parks within their precinct.
The most important duty is to draft the county’s budget.
The County Treasurer is the county’s banker.
Receiving and depositing all county revenues, preparing the county payroll and recording all county expenditures and receipts
County Tax Assessor-Collector and Clerk
County Tax Assessor-Collector is misleading - all tax assessments are now done by appraisal districts but the collector part still applies.
They collect property taxes for other taxing jurisdictions within the county and distributes those funds.
They also issue license plates, registration stickers, and handle voter registration.
The County Clerk is the county’s custodian of records and documents, in charge of public records such as bonds, birth and death certificates, and marriage licenses.
They are also the chief election officer, administering elections and counting the votes
The County Attorney
The County Attorney is the county’s lawyer, they provide legal advice and represent the county and its officials in all civil cases.
Since all the officials are elected it is possible for the county attorney and an official they representing be political opponents.
County Sheriff, District Attorney, and District Clerk
The County Sheriff is the county’s chief law enforcement officer.
They also manage the county jail and provides security for the county courts.
The District Attorney is the state’s prosecutor representing the government in criminal cases in that county’s state district courts.
The District Clerk is the recordkeeper for all records pertaining to the state district courts in that county.
Issues facing Texas Counties: Government Structure*
All the counties are locked into the same government structure.
Harris County has a population of nearly 5 million people with only four County Commissioners to represent them.
Loving County has the same structure with a population less than 100
The county commissioner lines are redrawn following the census to ensure equal population distribution
Issues facing Texas Counties: Lack of lawmaking power*
The Texas Constitution gives the counties almost no regulatory power.
In Harris county 2 million people live in an unincorporated area.
An example of an issue is a salvage yard opening in a single family housing neighborhood.
The residents asked county officials to zone the area to residential only but the county does not have to power to restrict land use.
Fun fact: If the unincorporated part of Harris County were a city, it would be the fifth-largest city in US
Issues facing Texas Counties: Efficiency*
Smaller counties are prone to inefficient operations and are vulnerable to corruption, for several reasons.
Most of them do not have a merit system of employment but operate on a spoils system.
Most counties have not centralized purchasing into a single procurement department
In 90% of Texas counties each commissioner is individually responsible for planning and executing their own road construction and maintenance program for their own precinct
City Government in Texas
City governments must also be created by the state government.
Residents of an area wishing to become a city must submit an charter application to the state legislature.
If the population is smaller than 5000, the city will be formed as a general law city.
If the population is more than 5,000 it can be granted home rule.
General law cities only have the powers specifically granted by the legislature which do not include broad annexation or regulatory powers.
Home rule cities are allowed to do anything they want that isn’t prohibited by the legislature.
Cities generate revenue primarily through property taxes and sales taxes
While the candidate’s political party is not displayed on the ballot their party affiliation is usually known by the public.
The most common city government structure is the council-manager form of government.
For example: Cedar Park uses a council-manager style of government. The city manager is appointed by the Cedar Park City Council.
Houston uses a “strong-mayor” form of government.
Houston counterbalances having a strong mayor by having an independently elected city controller, who much concur on all city expenditures and bond issues, and who can conduct independent audits of city departments
The legislative branch of city governments is the city council.
Some cities elect all their council members at large.
Council members represent all and anyone can run.
Other cities elect their council members from single-member districts.
To ensure that every part of town has a council member looking after their needs.
At large systems are criticized for making it difficult for members of racial minority groups to be elected.
Single member districts are criticized for creating “turf” mentality that places parts of town in competition with each other for parks and other city services.
Fun fact: Houston uses a mixed system. With five members at large and eleven members elected from single member districts
Issues facing city governments: Homelessness*
This is a nationwide issue that is increasing.
Sad fact: There has been a 12% increase in Homelessness in 2023.
Sad Fact 2: Texas is fourth in states with the most homeless residents. With more than 27,000 people
In 2019 the city council of Austin voted to end the ban on camping in public places
Efforts to house homeless residents include the use of permanent supportive housing units (PSH)
Of course this isn’t as easy as it sounds
Issues facing city governments: Housing Affordability*
Some argue that it is not the city government’s job to address affordability and gentrification.
Some proposed responses include changing zoning rule to allow property owners to create rental units connected to their property.
Such as a garage converted to an apartment.
Also allowing residential uses in commercial zones, this is to encourage the creation of more student housing to free up existing housing.
As well as changing parking requirements that currently restrict multi-family housing, and the use of federal grants and bonds to create more affordable housing
Issues facing city governments: Impact of Growth*
Other issues to explosive city growth are:
Transportation issues.
Road repair
Lack of water
Expanding bus and train services
Expanding parks and reaction.
Likewise, city infrastructure, such as water and wastewater plants are being asked to meet higher demands which is costly to cities.
Cities have to allocate funds to expand their public services.
Round Rock is one of the fastest growing areas in Texas and is in the process of building a $244 million water delivery project.
Cities also need to hire way more staff which can be difficult if cities are too expensive for those workers to live in.
Issues facing city governments: Funding*
City governments rely primarily on property and sales tax revenue.
These taxes place a higher burden on lower income residents.
Sad fact: property tax is high in Texas because local governments rely so heavily on property taxes since they can’t collect income taxes.
While most people complain about high property taxes they don’t seem to connect their taxes to paying for services they come to expect from cities
Issues facing city governments: Policing Reform*
This issue has received a lot of national attention following instances of excessive use of force by police.
Protesters around the US have been calling on city government to “defund the police” no city withdrew all funding for its police department.
Fun fact: Austin was the only large TX city to reduce its police budget reform policing
Again Governor Abbott was not pleased and asked the legislature to pass a law allowing the state to punish any city that did reduce its police budget, which the legislature passed.
But if the public wants to “defund” the police why can’t cities listen?
This law allows the state to redirect part of a city’s sales taxes and use that money to pay expenses for the DPS and bans these cities from increasing property taxes or utility rates, annex property.
Special Purpose Districts (SPDs)
There are more than 3,000 special districts.
Districts can be created by the Texas legislature, by local government bodies, or sometimes by a state agency.
Examples of SPDs are:
Education (community college and K- 12)
Water and waste management
Conservation and reclamation
Emergency service
Community development
Health
Transportation
Economic
Agriculture
Districts are governed by a board of directors, sometimes elected by voters and sometimes appointed by the legislature or the governing body of a local city or county
Special Purpose Districts: K-12
The most common SPDs in Texas are Independent school districts.
Texas has over 1,200 school districts and charter districts.
School districts levy a much higher property tax rate than any other local government, because of the high cost of K-12 education and decline in state funding.
School districts are also transportation and food service providers.
School districts are governed by a board of trustees, elected.
May of odd-number years.
They are volunteers, receiving no salary for their services.
They hire a superintendent to run the day-to-day operations of the school district.
The board of trustees sets the district property tax rate, approves the salary schedule for teachers and staff, and approves contracts for the construction and maintenance of school facilities and equipment
Special Purpose Districts: Community College
Texas has 50 community college districts.
Fun fact: ACC is the fourth largest.
They have taxing authority allowing these districts to apply a property tax to all properties within their district boundaries.
Community colleges are governed by a board of trustees elected.
These trustees serve the same role as school district trustees.
They hire a president or chancellor to run the college’s day-to-day operations
Special Purpose Districts: Municipal Utility Districts
A new neighborhood is being built on previously rural land outside the city limits.
Then a new governmental unit is created at the beginning of the development process.
The MUD borrows money via bonds to build a water and sewer system for the new subdivision.
Homeowners will then pay a property tax and rates to the district in order to repay the bonds.
There are thousands of MUDs in Texas.
Special Purpose Districts: Hospital and Other Districts
Some counties have formed hospital districts to collect a property tax and provide health services.
These districts handle emergency room visits and outpatient clinic visits.
This districts are run by boards of trustees, with members appointed by county commissioners’ courts.
Texas has over 40 other types of SPDs such as:
Rural fire protection
Flood
Emergency service
Mass transit
Redevelopment
Water improvement
Drainage
Mosquito control
Issues facing special districts: Funding, Invisibility & 2.0
Special districts generate revenue primarily through property taxes which is an issue for school districts.
Low property value means poor districts.
SPDs are frequently referred to as “invisible governments” because even though these governments deliver services that impact our lives and with positions filled by elections few voters know what they do.
Few voters cast an informed ballot when voting for these officials.
Also the economic impact of SPDs are also usually invisible to the public.
More local government employees work for K-12 and colleges than work for any other local government.
Fun fact: At the state level, state agencies and higher education institutions employed an average of 144,655 and 186,253.
Chapter 11: Public Policy
What is Public Policy?*
For complex “products” such as policy it becomes way more complicated trying to figure out your consumer, their needs, and how your “product” will satisfy them.
When thinking about public policy one approach is to see it as a broad strategy the government uses to do its job
More formally, it is the relatively stable set of purposive governmental actions that address matters of concern to some part of society.
1st Characteristic*
First characteristic of public policy is a guide to legislative action that is more or less fixed for long periods of time, not just short-term fixes or single legislative acts.
Policy also doesn’t happen by accident, and it is rarely formed simply as the result of the campaign promises of a single elected official, even the governor.
While elected officials are often important in shaping policy.
Most policy outcomes are the result of considerable debate, compromise, and refinement that happen over years and are finalized only after input from multiple institutions within government as well as from interest groups, Think Tanks, and the public.
Consider the example of government health care expansion, which was a policy passed by the federal government during President Obama’s administration.
The average person might think that change was sudden, but in reality expanding healthcare access by the government has been a democrat goal for decades.
Not all Americans, or all Texans, see the involvement of the federal government in state policy issues the same way.
Some see it as needed regulation and funding and some seeing it as a “take over” by an overreaching national government.
2nd Characteristic*
The second characteristic of public policy is that policy deals with issues of concern to some large segments of society, as opposed to matters of interest only to individuals.
For example: Paying off the loans of a specific individual is not public policy but creating a process for loan forgiveness would be
3rd Characteristic*
The third characteristic of public policy is that it is more than just the actions of government.
If we think of policy in terms of the outcomes for citizens or the impact on citizens, policy can even be made when government chooses not to act.
Not expanding Medicaid or not connecting the Texas Energy Grid to the national Grid.
These decisions have enormous impact.
There is one more way of thinking about policy outcomes: in terms of winners and losers.
Public policy promotes or rewards certain types of behavior while punishing others.
For example: Texas’s fight against “Woke” in Higher Education
Classic Types of Policy: Distributive Policy
Distributive Policy: everyone pays but not everyone benefits
Highways, higher education, railroads.
Distributive further explained:
Highways and not used by everyone. Some people don’t drive and walk but they still have to pay taxes that go into funding highway construction
Classic Types of Policy: Regulatory Policy
Regulatory policy features the opposite arrangement, with concentrated costs and diffused benefits.
A relatively small number of groups or individuals bear the costs but the benefits are expected to be distributed broadly across society.
As you might imagine, regulatory policy is most effective for controlling or protecting public or common resources.
Best known examples are: Public Health & Safety and the Environment
Regulatory policies prevent manufacturers or businesses from maximizing their profits by excessively polluting the air or water, selling products they know to be harmful, or compromising the health of their employees during production.
Other examples: Minimum wage, airbags in all cars, removing lead from gasoline
Classic Types of Policy: Redistributive Policy
The final type is Redistributive Policy.
Most redistributive policies are intended to have a sort of “Robin Hood” effect; their goal is to transfer income and wealth from one group to another such that everyone can enjoy at least a minimal standard of living.
A few examples are Medicaid and Food stamps.
Social Welfare Policy
Welfare policies create an automatic stimulus for a society by building a safety net that can “catch” members of a society.
They can prevent economic recession from causing more damage.
Key Policy Areas: Guns
Following the May 4, 2022 massacre of children and teachers at Robb Elementary School in Uvalde Texas some voters are asking why more has not been done to prevent mass shootings.
You did have anti-gun interest groups asking for the outlawing of assault style rifles and you had pro-gun interest groups arguing for mental health reform.
Of course we know that the Governor and other plural executive members side on the pro-guns side and instead ask for more public school security
More recently, according to the Texas Tribune, “Governor Abbott said that it would be unconstitutional to increase the minimum age to buy an assault-style rifle from 18-21”
A key proposal Uvalde parents have called for after the Uvalde gunman bought two AR15 rifles just days following his 18th birthday.
Use of public bathrooms, and gender- affirming medical care for minors have become issues in state politics in the last many years.
In 2015 two bills by Texas Representative Debbie Riddle were introduced into the Texas Legislature to criminalize entering a public restroom or locker room not designated for a person’s biological sex at birth.
In subsequent legislative sessions similar bills were introduced and prioritized by Dan Patrick and Greg Abbott surprisingly, none of these bills became law.
Key Policy Areas: LGBTQ+
In 2021, the legislature considered a bill dealing with the medical care for trans children defining the following as child “abuse” if a parent administered or consented to the administration of a “puberty suppression prescription drug for the purpose of gender transitioning” consented to gender transition or reassignment surgery.
When this bill did not pass the legislature, Texas Attorney General Ken Paxton issued an opinion stating that medical care such as puberty blockers, hormone therapy and gender-affirming procedures, even if approved by parents and doctors, are abuse of a child.
Odessa Transgender bathroom ban
Key Policy Areas: Voting Rights
While the national government did dramatically influence state voting laws with that Voting Rights legislation.
This has changed in the last few decades, with Shelby County v Holder that weakened the federal government’s authority to oversee and restrict state changes to their voting rights laws.
Following this weakening of federal oversight, states were given more control over their election laws.
Texas has passed state level legislation with the effect of placing hurdles in the path of voters.
Supporters of the laws, argue that the motivation is to prevent voter fraud while critics argue the motivation is to reduce the voter turnout.
Key Policy Areas: Education Policy
One of the most important functions of state and local government is providing and funding K-12 public education.
In 2018, $52.3 billion in state and local money went to 5.4 million students in 1,019 traditional school districts and 171 charter districts.
Texas has a very large and complex public school system, with an equally complex school finance system.
Three issues have played a major role in shaping education in Texas over the past fifty years: desegregation, funding equity, and finding the formula for educational excellence.
Funding per student is not equal across all school districts in Texas with some able to spend thousands more per year per pupil than other districts.
So districts that are “property wealthy”, can generate more revenue from the same property tax rate, or perhaps an even lower property tax rate, than a district that is “property poor.