AP Bio

Non-nuclear inheritance - chloroplasts and mitochondria have their own dna, dna in cytoplasm

  • Randomly assorted during cell division

  • Mitochondria transmitted by egg - only from mom - determined by pedigree

  • In ovule and not pollen of plants

Speciation - reproductive isolation -> creation of a new species

  • Prezygotic barriers - no fertilized - habit, temporal (time), behavior(preferences), mechanical (structure), gameet

  • post zygotic - prevent development - hybrid inviability (stops development) , sterility, breakdown (next generations are sterile)

Allopatric - geographical isolation - no gene flow

Sympatric speciation - reproductive isolation (mutations)

Punctuated - rapidly after stasis

Gradualism - long time

Divergent evolution - adaptations to new niches


Primitive earth- free energy, no O2, provided materials for organic molecules

Rna world hypothesis - RNA could have been the first genetic material

Bulk Transport 

Endocytosis - move particles into cell by enclosure buy plasma membrane

  • Folds inward and proteins close

Phagocytosis - large molecules

forms food vacuoles - fuse with lysosome

Pinocytosis - takes in small amount of extracellular fluid - happens continuously taking in nutrients and molecules

Plasmodesmata are channels through plant cell walls that allow material to be transported from cell-to-cell

Receptor - mediated endocytosis - receptor proteins on the cell surface are used to capture a specific target molecule

  • Cluster on membrane, coat protein on inside - give shape 

Exocytosis - form of bulk transport in which materials are transported from the inside to the outside of the cell in membrane-bound vesicles

  • Come from golgi apparatus

Toncity - ability of an extracellular solution to make water move into or out of a cell by osmosis

  • Membranes permeability and solute concentration

Endosymbiotic theory - mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free living prokaryotes

Endomembrane system - group of membranes works together to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins

  • Nuclear envelope 

  • Lysosomes

  • Golgi apparatus

  • plasma membrane

Proteins are folded and modified in lumen - incorporated in to membrane

  • Packaged into vesicles - small spheres of membrane shipped to golgi apparatus

  • Packaged into vesicles and tagged 

Phenotypic plasticy -  a single genotype produces multiple phenotypes under different environmental conditions

Sodium potassium pump - active transport proteins pump 3 na+ and 2 p+

Ligand binds - conformational change - gdt ->gtp - dissociation - protein regulation - gdp back everything resets

Chemical messengers - peptides of proteins message from secretory cells to target cells

Receptor proteins are located in cell membranes, nuclear membranes, or cytoplasm

G protein linked receptors - regulate enzymes ion channels, ligand turns on G proteins the receptor changes from GDP to GTP this triggers signal cascades or second messenger pathways to activate more G proteins

Local regulators- secreted from cell to cell and effect in close proximity 

  • Synaptic - travel from axon terminal to target - bind  to proteins on surface

  • Paracrine - cell secretes a chemical that travels to target cell

  • autocrine - cell that secretes the chemical is also the target

Long distance - travel in bloodstream - far away from secretory cells

  • Hormone p- cell wall or air m - blood stream

  • Amino acid derivative - altered amino acids or norepinephrine or proteins like insulin 

  •  - large and complicated, polar and can't cross so bind to proteins on surface - fast and dramatic

  • Steroid hormones - lipids

  • -  nonpolar, small can cross the lipid bilayer and cross into the interior - binding site, slower but longer duration 


Secondary recptors 

Nondisjunction - three chromosomes

The increased size and presence of more folds increases the surface area available for the smooth ER to perform lipid synthesis.

Water potential - 

Gene flow is the transfer of alleles from one population to another

WATCH TONIGHT 

Natural selection is a method of evolution - primary mechanism (fitest traits 

  • genetic drift random changes 

  • more likely with small populations 

  • bottleneck effect - disaster kills some population and variations reduces

  • founder effect - founders of new population have less variation 

Evolution evidence

Fossils - show transformations 

  • Ei dinosaurs to birds  - transitional fossils - big milestones in adaptations; important changes - trace decent and diversions 

Biogeographical - distribution

  • Similar environments lead to similar characteristics 

Homologous structures - parts of the body similar in appearance across species

  • Modified to meet needs

  • Common descent

  • Hands wings fins

Embryological development

  • Similar initially  - tail and gill pouch 

Analogous structure - opposite of homologous structures

  • Same function built differently 

  • Not common ancestor but common environment

Vestigial structures 

  • Anatomical structures no longer have a function

  • Ei appendix 

Biochemical 

  • Same nucleotides

  • Same 20 amino acids

  • Similar order 

Evolution of Populations

  • Mutation

  • Gene flow

  • Non-random mating - favorable characteristics

  • Genetic drift - founder migratory patterns

  • Natural selection

Population - group of interbreeding individuals

Gene pool - alleles in a population (frequency) 

Evolution - change in allele frequencies

  • To not occur

  • Remove all agents of evolutionary change

  • Large population (no genetic drift)

  • No migration (gene flow)

  • no mutations

  • Random mating

  • No natural selection

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

  • Consistent allele frequencies - null hypothesis (can’t be true used for comparison) 

  • Measure if forces are acting

  • 2 alleles B, b

  • - B = p b=q p+q=1

  • Individuals

  • - p^2+2pq+q^=1

Photoperiodism - effect of day and night on plant growth - directed by receptors called phototropins and phyto/crytophromes

Photoperiodism - direction of plant growth is determined by direction of light (taxis)

Circadian rhythms - repeat once per day

  • Biological clocks 

  • Retina receipts light that projects to the hypothalamus that sends a message to secrete melatonin 

Aquatic and terrestrial animals 

Exchange gas

Single celled - across membrane

T - stomata in epidermis - regulated by guard cells

A - gills 

Simple animals - earthworms - skin arthropods have spiracles that open into trachea

Double circulatory - 

Digestive systems

Food vacuoles fuse with lysosomes and breakdown macromolecules

Gastrovascular cavity can digest intracellular - on cavity mouth and anus

One-way alimentary canal with a stomach and intestine two cavities

Exchange mechanisms  - fluid to carry vessel to distribute and pump the blood through the system and exchange gases

A- gills for respiration large surface area blood and gas exchange 

Water loss leads to lungs - diaphragm functions - leads to bronchi and bronchioles 

Excretion 

A- ammonia into environment

M - urine

B and r - unic acid - more water retention 

Hearts

F - single loop one atrium and one ventricle

A - three chambers two atria and one ventricle, double loop pathway - low pressure to lungs and high to rest

M - septum to atria and two ventricles and double loop - higher metabolic rate

PCR

 plasmid is introduced into bacteria via a process called transformation