Study Communication

Language is a structured system of symbols used for communicating meaning.
Phonological rules deal with the correct pronunciation of a word and vary from language to language.
Syntactic rules govern the order of words within phrases and clauses.
Semantic rules have to do with the meaning of individual words.
Pragmatic rules deal with the implications or interpretations of statements.
denotative meaning the literal meaning of a word, the way the dictionary defines it.
connotative meaning the ideas or concepts a word suggests in addition to its literal definition.
Loaded language involves words with strongly positive or negative connotations.
Ambiguous language involves statements that we can interpret to have more than one meaning.
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis proposes that language shapes a person’s view of reality.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has been criticized because it is equally possible that our thoughts shape and constrain our language, not having a word for a particular experience doesn’t necessarily mean that people don’t have that experience and even people who don’t acquire language are able to think, count, and interact with others.
Credibility is the extent to which others perceive us to be competent and trustworthy
a. Several forms of language enhance or diminish our credibility:
i. Clichés are words or phrases that were novel at one time but have lost their effect owing to overuse.
ii. Dialects are language variations shared by people of a certain region or social class.
iii. Equivocation is language that disguises the speaker’s true intention through strategic ambiguity.
iv. Weasel words are terms or phrases intended to mislead listeners by implying something they don’t actually say.
v. Allness statements are statements implying that a claim is true without exception.
Gossip- informal and frequently judgmental talk about people who are not present during the conversation.
Criticism consists of words that pass judgment on someone or something.
a. Destructive criticism occurs when we feel that someone is criticizing us to put us down or destroy our self-confidence.
b. constructive criticism when someone is criticizing us to help us improve.
threat a declaration of the intention to harm someone if the receiver does or doesn’t do something specific.
Persuasion is the process of convincing people that they should think or act in a certain way.
anchor-and-contrast approach is a persuasion technique by which one precedes a desired request with a request that is much larger.
norm of reciprocity suggests that when someone gives you some type of gift or resource, you are expected to return the favor (and will feel a sense of duty to do so).
social validation principle maintains that people will comply with requests if they believe others are also complying.
euphemism a vague, mild expression that symbolizes and substitutes for something that is more blunt or more harsh.
Slang is the use of informal and unconventional words that often are understood only by others in a particular group.
Jargon the technical vocabulary of a certain occupation or profession, is related to slang.
Defamation is language that harms a person’s reputation or gives that person a negative image.
a. Libel refers to defamatory statements made in print or some other fixed medium, such as a photograph or a motion picture.
b. Slander is a defamatory statement that is made aloud, within earshot of others.
Profanity is language that is considered vulgar, rude, or obscene in the context in which it is used.
Hate speech is a specific form of profanity meant to degrade, intimidate, or dehumanize people based on their sex, national origin, sexual orientation, religion, race, disability status, or political or moral views.
civil dialogue, a process of engaging in honest, authentic, and respectful conversation with others.
“I-statement” claims ownership of what a communicator is feeling or thinking.
“you-statement” shifts responsibility to the other person.
Nonverbal communication involves the behaviors and characteristics that convey meaning without the use of words.
emoji, the familiar textual representations of facial expressions often used in e-mail messages.
Nonverbal channels are the various behavioral forms that nonverbal communication takes.
deception the act of leading someone to believe something you know to be untrue.
immediacy behaviors nonverbal signals of affection and affiliation.
Facial displays are facial expressions that are an important source of information in nonverbal communication.
Symmetry is the similarity between the left and right sides of your face.
Proportionality refers to the relative size of your facial features.
Oculesics is the study of eye behavior.
Kinesics the study of movement
gesticulation the use of arm and hand movements to communicate
Emblems are any gestures that have a direct verbal translation.
Illustrators are gestures that clarify the meaning of a verbal message.
Affect displays are gestures that communicate emotion (affect).
Regulators are gestures that control the flow of conversation.
Adaptors are gestures one uses to satisfy some personal need.
Haptics is the study of how we use touch to communicate.
Vocalics Characteristics of the voice that communicate meaning are referred to as.
Paralanguage vocalic behaviors that communicate meaning along with verbal behavior:
a. Pitch is how high or deep someone’s voice sounds.
b. Inflection describes variation in a voice’s pitch.
c. Volume is how loud or quiet someone’s voice is.
d. Rate is how fast or slowly an individual speaks.
e. Filler words are nonword sounds used to fill the silence during pauses.
f. Pronunciation is how correctly someone combines vowel and consonant sounds to say words.
g. Articulation describes how clearly someone speaks.
h. Accent is the pattern of vowel and consonant sound pronunciations that is representative of a particular language or geographic area.
i. Silence is the absence of sound.
Olfactics sense of smell
proxemics the scientific study of spatial use
a. Intimate distance (0 to 1½ feet) is the zone we willingly occupy with our closest and most intimate friends, family members, and romantic partners.
b. Personal distance (1½ to 4 feet) is the zone we occupy with other friends and relatives.
c. Social distance (4 to 12 feet) is the zone we use with customers, casual acquaintances, and others whom we don’t know very well.
d. Public distance (12 to 25 feet or greater) is the zone used when someone is giving a speech or performing in front of a large audience.
halo effect suggests that we have a strong predisposition to attribute positive qualities to physically attractive people.
Chronemics is the way we use time.
Artifacts are the objects and visual features within an environment that reflect who we are and what we like.
audience analysis-thinking carefully about the characteristics of their listeners so they can address their audience in the most effective way.
a. Age-Age matters when a talk includes references to popular culture, computer-mediated communication, which forms of presentation will best grab and hold their attention.
b. Sex and sexual orientation-Women and men differ from each other in their attitudes about particular topics. Bear in mind that listeners may vary in their sexual orientation because some forms of language reflect only the experiences of heterosexual people.
c. Culture- many cultural minorities have histories of social, economic, or political oppression. Be careful to avoid words and phrases that insult, mock, or belittle cultural groups. Speakers who aren’t culturally sensitive can cause offense even if they don’t intend to do so-what matters is how comments are interpreted rather than how they are intended.
d. Economic status-Wealthy audiences are often conservative, so they may be more resistant to change. Low-income audiences are often more liberal and more open to new ways of thinking.
e. Physical and mental capabilities-Many audiences include people with differing physical and mental capabilities and a speaker must sensitively accommodate listeners’ needs.
f. Political orientation- Being aware of listeners’ political orientation is particularly important if you are speaking on a politically contentious topic. Listeners’ political leanings will affect how persuasive they judge evidence to be.
general search engine-a website that allows you to search for other websites containing information on a topic that you specify.
research search engine-doesn’t scan the Internet as broadly as general search engines do but looks only for research that has been published in books, academic journals, and other periodicals.
conference paper- outline of an oral presentation at a conference so attendees can review the major details of the presentation.
Database-an electronic storehouse of specific information that people can search. The major difference between a database and a research search engine is that databases tend to be narrower and more specialized in the sources they include.
Survey- collecting data by asking people directly about their experiences.
Interview- a structured conversation in which one person poses questions to which another person responds.
specific purpose of your speech—the main goal for your presentation.
Thesis- the main message
purpose statement-a declaration of your specific goal for your speech and expresses precisely what you want to accomplish during your presentation.
To draft a purpose statement

1. identify your topic and your general goal.
2. consider what you want to inform your listeners about or what you want to persuade your listeners to think or do.
   Purpose statements can also reflect the goal to entertain, to introduce, or to give honor.
   To develop a strong purpose statement, follow these guidelines:
   a. Be specific.
   A purpose statement such as “Teach my audience about the weather” is vague, because the weather has so many facets.

b. Be declarative, writing your purpose statement as a directive.
such as “Explain the process of creating a Twitter account.” Simply posing a question.
c. Be concise, focusing your purpose statement on one specific goal.
A statement such as “Persuade my listeners that government should provide universal health care and that the free market economy hurts working families” is too broad because it expresses more than one distinct purpose.

thesis statement - a one-sentence version of the message in your speech.
main point - a statement expressing a specific idea or theme related to the speech topic.
topic pattern- to organize your main points to represent different categories.
time pattern- arranging points in chronological order.
space pattern- to organizes your main points according to areas.
a. cause-and-effect pattern- to organize your points so they describe the causes of an event or a phenomenon and then identify its consequences.
b. problem-solution pattern- to organize your points so they describe a problem and then offer one or more solutions for it.
Transition- a statement that connects one point in a speech to the next.
preview transition- a statement alerting your listeners that you are about to shift to a new topic.
summary transition- a statement that briefly reminds your listeners of points you have already made
Signposts- single words or phrases that distinguish one point in your presentation from another. They help listeners to follow the path of your outline or speech.
rule of subordination- some concepts in your speech are more important than others.
rule of division- if you divide a point into subpoints, you must create at least two subpoints.
rule of parallel structure- all points and subpoints in your outline should have the same grammatical structure.
working outline- structured set of all the points and subpoints in your speech.

1. Most working outlines for a speech include the following elements:
   a. The title expresses what you intend to say.
   b. The purpose statement is clear and easy to understand.
   a. The thesis statement is clear and easy to understand.
   b. The introduction leads readers into your speech.
   c. The main points and subpoints make up the body of the speech.
   d. The conclusion indicates the exact message you want to be remembered.
   Bibliography (or reference list) is a list of sources you used in preparing your speech.
   Speaking notes or speaking outline- abbreviated version of a formal speech outline.
   Their purpose is to aid your delivery by reminding you of each of your points and subpoints. Remember that you will construct your outlines in conjunction with researching support for your points
   Plagiarism- using information from another source without giving proper credit to that source.
   copyright infringement- which means using materials that are protected by copyright without gaining permission or giving proper recognition to their source.
   verbal footnote- a statement giving credit for the words to their original source.

Questionnaire- a written instrument containing questions for people to answer. Questionnaires allow data collection from a large number of people efficiently. The disadvantage of questionnaires is that it is difficult to get the detailed answers that are possible in an interview.

Chapter 13 (condidently and competently)
impromptu speech- a speech that is delivered on the spot, with little or no preparation.
Suppose you’re meeting with your project team at work and your manager asks you to share your marketing ideas with the group.
(don’t panic, think in three, draw from whats happened, be brief)

extemporaneous speech- carefully prepared to sound as though it is being delivered spontaneously. As an extemporaneous speaker, you want to give the impression that you are simply talking with your listeners instead of formally addressing them.

want to communicate in a natural, conversational manner—to give the impression that you are simply talking with your listeners instead of formally addressing them.

scripted speech- composed word for word on a manuscript and then read aloud exactly as it is written.
For instance, politicians often use teleprompters when delivering important speeches before large audiences, such as the president does when delivering the State of the Union speech every year.

memorized speech- a speech that you compose word for word and then deliver from memory.
. Memorizing their words allows people to speak without having to handle a script or set of notes. They can then gesture naturally and maintain an effective level of eye contact with their listeners. A
Public speaking anxiety (stage fright)- nervousness or fear brought on by performing in front of an audience.
Stress- the body’s reaction to any type of perceived threat.
Anxiety- a feeling of worry and unease.
anticipatory anxiety- worry one feels when looking ahead to a speech.
Fight-or-flight response- a reaction that helps prepare your body either to confront a stressor (through a fight) or to avoid it (through flight).
Visualization- developing a particular mental image of winning or giving a successful performance.
Desensitization- the process of confronting frightening situations head-on.
Avatars- graphic representations of people
Slideshow- a selection of images and text created in a presentation software and projected on a screen for the audience to see.
Articulation- the extent to which the speaker pronounces words clearly.
Fluency- the smoothness of the speaker’s delivery.
Stuttering- a speech disorder that disrupts the flow of words with repeated or prolonged sounds and involuntary pauses.
Presentation aids- anything used in conjunction with a speech or presentation to stimulate listeners’ senses.
text slide- an electronic display of text used to accompany a speech.
graphic slide- an electronic display of information in a visually compelling format that can
table- the display of words or numbers in a format of columns and rows and is an effective option when you want to compare the same information for two or more groups.
Chart- a graphic display of numeric information.
pie chart- a graphic display of numbers in the form of a circle divided into segments.
line chart is a graphic display of numbers in the form of a line or lines that connect various data points.
bar chart- depicts numbers as bars on a graph.
Listening is the active process of making meaning out of another person’s spoken message.
Hearing is the sensory process of receiving and perceiving sounds.
attending to someone’s words is paying attention well enough to understand what that person is trying to communicate.
HURIER model, developed by Judi Brownell. This model suggests that active listening has six elements represented by the acronym HURIER:

1. Hearing, the physical process of receiving sound, is where listening begins.
2. Understanding is comprehending the meanings of the words and phrases you’re hearing.
3. Remembering is being able to store something in your memory and retrieve it when needed.
   a. Research shows that most people can recall a mere 25 percent of what they hear.
   b. Mnemonics are tricks that can aid our short- and long-term memory.
4. Interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to information that has been selected for attention and organized.
5. Evaluating involves assessing the value of the information we’ve received a process called evaluation.
6. Responding is indicating to a speaker that we are listening.
   a. Stonewalling is responding with silence and a lack of expression on your face.
   b. Backchanneling is using facial expressions, nods, vocalizations, and verbal statements to let the speaker know you’re paying attention.
   c. Paraphrasing is restating in your own words what the speaker has said to show that you understand.
   d. Empathizing is conveying to the speaker that you understand and share his or her feelings on the topic being discussed.
   e. Supporting is expressing your agreement for the speaker’s opinion or point of view.
   f. Analyzing is providing your own perspective on what the speaker has said.
   g. Advising is communicating advice to the speaker about what he or she should think, feel, or do.
   Informational listening is listening to learn.
   Critical listening is used when our goal is to evaluate or analyze what we are hearing.
   Empathic listening occurs when you are trying to identify with the speaker by understanding and experiencing what he or she is thinking or feeling.
   Noise is anything that interferes with your ability to encode or decode a message.
   Pseudolistening is pretending to pay attention to someone when you really are not listening.
   Selective listening is listening only to what you want to hear and ignoring the rest.
   Information overload refers to the huge amount of information that each of us takes in every day.
   Glazing over is daydreaming or allowing the mind to wander while another person is speaking.
   Rebuttal tendency is the propensity to debate a speaker’s point and formulate a reply while that person is still speaking.
   Closed-mindedness is the tendency not to listen to anything with which one disagrees.
   Competitive interrupting is the practice of using interruptions to take control of the conversation.
   Confirmation bias is the tendency to pay attention only to information that supports your values and beliefs, while discounting or ignoring information that doesn’t.
   vividness effect is the tendency of allowing dramatic, shocking events to distort one’s perceptions of reality.
   Skepticism is a method of questioning that involves evaluating evidence for a stated claim.
   Workplace communication refers to the interactions people have as part of their employment.
   internal communication, that is, the messages people within the workplace convey to one other.
   Formal communication consists of messages from the work organization that relate to its operations.
   Upward communication consists of messages we send to people at higher levels of the organizational hierarchy than ours; these messages should be clear, concise, and respectful.
   Downward communication consists of messages we send to people at lower levels of the organizational hierarchy; these messages should avoid specialized jargon and should include language that anyone can understand.
   Lateral communication involves the messages we share with peers, coworkers, or anyone who occupies the same position or level of power in the workplace hierarchy that we do; in these messages, we should treat people as equals
   Informal communication is not necessarily sanctioned by the employer but arises from the social interactions of its members.
   grapevine, a metaphor indicating that informal messages are often conveyed in upward, downward, and lateral directions simultaneously.
   i. Grapevines use multiple communication channels.
   ii. People rely heavily on the grapevine during a crisis.
   iii. Communication along the grapevine can be remarkably accurate.
   External communication refers to messages people within the workplace convey to others outside the organization.
   a. Consumers, or anyone who buys or might buy a company’s products or services.
   b. Potential members, or anyone who might come to work for the organization as either a paid employee or a volunteer.
   c. Stockholders, or people who own shares of a publicly traded company.
   d. The media, which include broadcast, print, and electronic forms of mass communication.
   e. Lawmakers, including local elected officials, state legislators, and members of Congress.
   f. The general public, which includes current or potential customers and employees and anyone else to whom an employer’s reputation matters.
   Organizational culture involves the values, customs, and communication behaviors that workplace members share and that reflect their organization’s distinct identity.
   Organizational rites are ceremonial acts and practices that convey characteristics of an organization’s culture, which can include the culture of a workplace.
   i. Rites of passages signify people’s advancement to a higher status or level in a workplace.
   ii. Rites of integration enhance feelings of inclusion and community in the workplace.
   iii. Blaming rites are concerned with consequences for poor or unethical performance.
   iv. Enhancement rites relate to consequences for superior performance.
   v. Renewal rites update and revitalize a workplace.
   vi. Conflict resolution rites aim to manage disagreements and discord.
   Organizational rituals are repeated behaviors that provide a familiar routine to an organization’s experiences.
   a. In workplaces, three types of rituals are especially common:
   i. Personal rituals are routine behaviors through which individuals convey their workplace identity.
   ii. Social rituals are recurring events that reinforce personal relationships among workplace members.
   iii. Task rituals are repeated activities that enhance people’s abilities to do their jobs.
   Formal roles are functions that are prescribed by the employer itself.
   Informal roles are functions adopted by specific people rather than being dictated by the workplace.
   Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness of societies and their economies as a result of developments in transportation and communication.
   Work/life conflict refers to the pressure of balancing the demands of work with those of nonwork life.
   burnout, a chronic sense of exhaustion or apathy that can come from long-term frustration and stress, and it is a result of work/life conflict.
   interview is a structured conversation that focuses on questions and answers.
7. In an appraisal interview, you discuss your performance and your goals for the future.
8. A problem-solving interview occurs to understand the nature of a problem and identify potential solutions.
9. An exit interview is a conversation about your experiences with the organization you’re leaving.
   10. A counseling interview is an interaction aimed at supporting an individual through a personal problem.
   11. A service-oriented interview is a conversation oriented toward helping you with a product or service you have purchased.
   12. A persuasive interview is a conversation intended to affect your belief, opinion, or behavior.
   13. A survey interview is an interaction aimed at gathering information.
   14. A selection interview is a conversation intended to help the interviewer to choose the most appropriate person for a position, an assignment, a promotion, or an award.
       A cover letter is a short letter in which you describe the type of position you are interested in.
       A résumé is a short document listing your employment qualifications and typically includes the following details: