In-Depth Notes on Schedules of Reinforcement and Punishment
Schedules of Reinforcement
Schedules of Reinforcement: Conditions that specify the relationship between a behavior and the opportunity to receive reinforcement. This concept is critical in understanding how behaviors are acquired and maintained through various reinforcement strategies.
1. Continuous vs Intermittent Schedules
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule (CRF): Every instance of a behavior is reinforced.
Example: A rat receives food every time it presses a lever. This method is highly effective for quickly establishing new behaviors.
Uses: Effective in the initial stages of learning when shaping behavior steps.
Advantages: Consistent reinforcement can lead to faster learning.
Disadvantages: Once reinforcement is removed, behavior may quickly extinguish due to lack of continued reinforcement.
Intermittent Reinforcement Schedule (Partial): Only some responses are reinforced.
Example: Only some lever presses by a rat result in food, resembling real-world situations like social interactions.
Advantages: More resilient to extinction; behaviors tend to persist even when reinforcement stops because the unpredictable nature creates a stronger association.
Types:
Fixed Ratio (FR): A set number of responses (e.g., FR 10 means reinforcement after every 10 responses).
Variable Ratio (VR): A varying number of responses (e.g., slot machines; on average, rewards are unpredictable).
Fixed Interval (FI): A fixed time period must pass (e.g., reinforcement after 2 minutes).
Variable Interval (VI): Variable time periods (e.g., receiving calls or messages sporadically).
Real-World Application: This schedule is common in areas like gambling and sales, contributing to the persistence of behaviors.
2. Types of Intermittent Schedules
Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses.
Characteristics: High response rates, with short pauses after each reinforcement.
Example: A rat gets food after every 10 lever presses. This schedule leads to high productivity as the subject aims for the reward.
Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement after a varying number of responses.
Characteristics: Produces a high, stable rate of response without pauses.
Example: Slot machines in gambling; a player wins after an unpredictable number of plays, which encourages ongoing engagement.
Psychological Impact: The unpredictability of rewards maintains interest and behavior, making it highly effective for training.
Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement after a specific time period.
Characteristics: Typically leads to a scalloped response pattern; responses increase as the time for reinforcement approaches.
Example: A rat gets food after a set time, such as every 5 minutes, leading to bursts of activity before reinforcement.
Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement after varying time periods.
Characteristics: Generates modest but steady rates of responding.
Example: Checking for an email; responses are maintained because the timing of receiving an email is unpredictable.
3. Ratio Strain and Stretching the Ratio
Ratio Strain: Occurs when there is a rapid increase in the reinforcement ratio, which can lead to frustration and breakdown of behavior.
Example: If a rat’s FR schedule goes from 10 to 20, the sudden increase may lead the rat to stop pressing the lever altogether.
Solution: Gradual increments in reinforcement requirements help ease the subject into new expectations, maintaining the behavior.
4. Extinction
Extinction: The process wherein a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced, leading to a gradual decline in that behavior.
Example: If you stop giving a dog a treat for sitting, eventually the dog will stop sitting on command.
Factors Influencing Extinction:
The rate of previous reinforcement.
The timing of extinction following the last reinforcement.
Psychological Insights: Understanding how reinforcement and extinction work together provides insights into various psychological techniques, training, and behavior modification strategies.
5. Escape, Avoidance, and Punishment
Negative Reinforcement: The process of removing an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior.
Example: Leaving a loud party because it’s uncomfortable; the escape behavior removes the negative stimulus.
Avoidance Behavior: Taking actions to prevent an aversive stimulus before it occurs (e.g., avoiding an area where a tornado is likely).
Applications: Used in conditioning, therapy, and behavior modification techniques.
6. Two-Process Theory of Avoidance
This theory suggests that two processes are involved in avoidance behavior:
Process 1: Classical conditioning creates a fear response to a conditioned stimulus (CS), which signals an aversive event.
Process 2: The operation of avoidance responses is negatively reinforced by the cessation of the aversive stimulus (i.e., performing the behavior alleviates fear).
Example: A person avoids taking a specific route due to fear of an accident after experiencing a near-miss.
Critique: Avoidance responses do not weaken or extinguish despite repeated exposure without the unconditioned stimulus (US).
7. Punishment
Positive Punishment: Involves adding an aversive stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.
Example: Spanking a child for misbehavior.
Effectiveness: Can reduce unwanted behaviors but may provoke fear or aggression in subjects.
Negative Punishment: Removing a reinforcing stimulus following a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.
Example: Taking away a teenager’s phone for breaking curfew.
Consequences: Can lead to resentment or a focus on avoiding the punisher rather than learning desired behaviors.
8. Issues with Punishment
The Limitations of Punishment:
Does not promote the learning of alternative, constructive behaviors.
Can lead to generalized suppression of behaviors, resulting in withdrawal from participation due to a fear of punishment.
Risks teaching avoidance of the punisher rather than the undesirable behavior, potentially leading to deception or hiding of behaviors.
Alternatives to Punishment: Focus on reinforcement strategies that promote desirable behaviors while providing corrective feedback without aversive outcomes.
Vocabulary
Reinforcement: The process of increasing the likelihood of a behavior by providing a reward.
Extinction: The cessation of reinforcement leading to a decrease in behavior frequency.
Negative Reinforcement: Removal of an aversive stimulus to increase behavior.
Avoidance Behavior: Preventing the occurrence of an aversive event.
Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior frequency.
Negative Punishment: Removing a positive stimulus to decrease behavior frequency.
Ratio Strain: Frustration that occurs when reinforcement requirements are increased too rapidly.
Fixed Ratio (FR): Schedule of reinforcement based on a specified number of responses.
Variable Ratio (VR): Schedule of reinforcement on a variable number of responses.
Fixed Interval (FI): Schedule reinforcing after a specific time period.
Variable Interval (VI): Schedule reinforcing after varying time periods.