PS281 Test 1 Key Terms

3Is: Interests, Interactions, Institutions

• Interest: What actors want to achieve through political action; is their preferences over the outcomes that might result from their political choices.

• Interactions: The ways in which the choices of two or more actors combine to produce political outcomes.

• Institutions: A set of rules known and shared by the community that structure interaction in specific ways.

Realism

• Is a theoretical framework in international relations that has rational and unitary states act in hopes of achieving material goods, power, autonomy, and security. Typically takes place in anarchical-like institution settings where things like conflict and cooperation happen but cooperation is unlikely and institutions have little power.

• Realism deals mainly with security and material power.

Liberalism

• Is a theoretical framework in international relations that has rational and unitary states act in hopes of gaming information and material wealth, along with their own principles. Typically takes place in anarchical-like settings where things like conflict and cooperation happen but cooperation is somewhat likely and institutions facilitate coop.

• Liberalism looks primarily at economic interdependence and domestic-level factors

Constructivism

• Is a theoretical framework in international relations that has a variety of different actors typically caused by blending or mixing, the actors have nonmaterial and socially constructed norms. The institutions are intersubjective constructions and work for socialization and change helping the process along where possible.

• Constructivism concerns itself with the role of ideas in shaping the international system.

Anarchy

• Is the absence of a central authority with the ability to make and enforce laws that bind all actors. This means that all actors are left to navigate their security and interest policies and that there is no one actor that is above the others. 

Bargaining Theory of War

• Is a theory that views war as a bargaining process between two or more sides, and considers factors such as gain, costs, and status quo.

Coordination vs. Collaboration

• Coordination: A type of cooperative interaction in which actors benefit from all making the same choices and subsequently have no incentive to not comply.

• Collaboration: A type of cooperative interaction in which actors gain from working together but nonetheless have incentives to not comply with any agreement.

Agenda-Setting Power

• Is the advantage that a first mover gets when it comes to bargaining as they get to set the media into action making the public aware of specific issues that they want them to.

Prisoner’s Dilemma

•  A situation in which individuals, acting in their own self-interest, choose options that lead to a worse outcome than if they had cooperated.

Chicken

• A strategic game where two players head toward a collision, and the one who swerves loses; if neither swerves, both face disaster

Stag Hunt

• A game theory scenario where cooperation leads to the best outcome (hunting a stag), but uncertainty about others' actions may push individuals to choose a safer but less rewarding option (hunting a rabbit).

Collective Action Problem

• A situation where individuals would benefit from working together, but each has an incentive to free-ride, leading to suboptimal outcomes. AKA the tragedy of the commons 

Public Goods

• Products that are nonexcludable (pricey or hard to make it exclusive), nonrival (if one person uses it won't exclude others using it), and sustainable (won't hard consumers now or in the future) in consumption, such as national defense.

 Compellence & Deterrence

• Compellence: An effort to change the status quo through the threat of force. Also the act of encouraging an action.

• Deterrence: An effort to preserve the status quo through the threat of force. Also the act of deterring an action.

Audience Costs

• Is the cost of not following through from domestic and international audiences caused by incomplete information, misrepresented incentives, and political structures.

Incomplete Information

• A situation in which actors in a strategic interaction lack information about other actors' interests and or capabilities causing uncertainty, difficulty in making informed decisions, potential for inaccurate conclusions, and increased risk of making poor choices for actors.

Commitment Problems

• These are the problems that occur when an actor does not go through on an agreement or keep a deal leading to them looking unreliable and having credibility problems.

Preventive vs. Preemptive War

• Preventative War: This is military action taken to stop a potential threat from gaining power or to stop an attack from happening that isn't quite imminent.

• Preemptive War: This is military action to stop a potential threat that is already in power or to stop an imminent attack.

Capabilities & Resolve

• Capability: The ability an actor possesses to make decisions or to show force in order to acquire some good or goal.

• Resolve: The willingness of an actor to endure costs in order to acquire some good or goal that they want.

Indivisible Goods

• A good cannot be divided without diminishing its value or being effectively divided. This can lead to conflict as there is a fixed amount no actor wants to settle for less.

Brinkmanship

• A strategy in which adversaries take actions that increase the risk of accidental war, with the hope that others will blink or lose their nerve first and make concessions.

Rally-Round-the-Flag

• Is the tenancy people have to rally or come to a cause and become more supportive of the government or group in response to dramatic international events like a crisis or wars.

Diversionary Incentive

• Is a theory of war by Jack Levy that says that state leaders have the incentive to start or move focus to international order problems to rally public support at home and move worry away from domestic problems.

Types of Domestic Actors

• Are the main actors of states at home, they are members of one of three key groups executive (the prime minister or president), the legislature, or interest groups. Refers to the individuals, groups, or institutions within a country that influence its foreign policy decisions.

Theory of Political Survival

• Is how leaders prioritize staying in power by maintaining the support of key political groups, often through resource distribution, patronage, or policies that ensure their coalition’s loyalty.

Selectorate

• Is the subset of people who choose and remove the leader(s) from power, can range from a small elite to the entire population (electorate).

National vs. Particularistic Interests

• National Interests: Broad goals and priorities that benefit an entire country, such as security, economic growth, or national sovereignty.

• Particular Interests: Narrower goals that benefit specific groups, such as corporations, political elites, or interest groups, sometimes at the expense of the broader national interest.

Democratic Peace Theory

• Is a theory that says democracies are more likely to have peace, it says that democracies are hesitant to engage in armed conflict with other identified democracies leading them to pursue peace more frequently, this is due to audience cost and other factors.

Costly Signals

• Are a type of signal that is costly for an actor to use or embark on but sends a clear message about where they stand helping to differentiate between actors.

Alliances

• Are types of international institutions formed between states in hopes of facilitating military cooperation amongst each other, typically trade as well.

Hub-and-Spoke System

• This is when a dominant power (hub) maintains bilateral ties with multiple smaller states (spokes) rather than fostering multilateral cooperation in order to maximize control and benefits.

Collective Security

• Broad-based institutions that promote peace and security among thier members. Examples include the League of Nations and the UN.

Balancing vs. Bandwagoning

• Balancing: When states join forces to counter a stronger or more threatening power, either by building their own military capabilities (internal balancing) or forming alliances (external balancing).

• Bandwagoning: When states align with a stronger power, often for protection or to share in its benefits, rather than opposing it.

Peace Enforcement Operations

• A military operation in which force is used to make and/ or enforce peace among warring parties that have not agreed to end their fighting.

Peacekeeping Operations

• An operation in which troops and observers are deployed to monitor a cease-fire or peace agreement.

UN Security Council

• Is the main governing body of the UN, and has the authority to identify threats to international peace and security and to prescribe the organization's response, including military and/or economic sanctions. Has five permanent members (United States, Great Britain, France, Russia, and China) all of which have veto power. 

Grievances & Greed

• Main reasons for armed conflict and civil wars.

• Greed: from a desire to seek greater control or for monetary gain.

• Grievances: from a wish to cast off discriminatory policies.

Explaining the Rise of Organized Groups

• Are alliances between groups formed out of convenience, not because of shared principles. Once a group has reached a threshold of influence, it is able to be a major player in its political party's nomination process and can force politicians to advance its agenda giving them immense power.

Strategies of Insurgency

• Rebel strategies of asymmetric warfare strategy, nondirect combat based on hit-and-run attacks against government, civilian, & military targets using rough terrain and sympathetic groups to hide all in hopes of imposing high costs and forced concessions.

Strategies of Counterinsurgency

• Hearts and min campaigns to provide security, jobs, infrastructure, goods, services, and more along with peacekeeping operations to provide safety and resolve commitment problems, also aid in reconstruction in hopes of winning over the people.

(Ir)rationality of Terrorism

• Extremist View – Terrorists often hold interests not shared by the general population, making their actions appear irrational. However, from their perspective, their goals justify extreme measures.

• Costly Action – Terrorist attacks may seem to have high costs with little tangible gain, but they serve as costly signals that demonstrate commitment and resolve, potentially deterring enemies or inspiring recruits.

• Random Attacks – While attacks appear random, they are often strategically planned to instill fear, disrupt stability, and provoke overreactions from governments, furthering the group's objectives.

Terrorism as Failed Bargains

• Terrorism that is a result of failed bargaining attempts means that there was or is some agreeable outcome the two actors could have agreed upon but didn't. Maybe because of political objectives, interests that are in conflict, violence that has raised costs or institutions not being able to resolve the extreme demands that the groups have.

Target Audience of Terrorism

• Target State: is the enemy and the ultimate goal is to create high enough fear or costs that they are willing to give up concessions.

• Home population: the people at home with the terrorists who haven't joined the cause, the goal here is to win over the population and overcome the collective action problem.

Strategies of Terrorism

• Coercion: Uses violence or the threat of violence to force governments into making political concessions.

• Outbidding: Competing extremist groups escalate violence to prove their commitment and gain public support.

• Spoiling: Disrupts peace processes by creating distrust between negotiating parties.

• Provocation: Seeks to elicit a harsh government response that alienates the population and increases support for the terrorist group.

Strategies of Counterterrorism

• Deterrence: Threatens severe retaliation to discourage terrorist attacks.

• Preemption: Uses proactive strikes, intelligence operations, or assassinations to disrupt terrorist networks before attacks occur.

• Defensive Measures: Strengthens security (e.g., border controls, surveillance) to make attacks more difficult.

• Criminalization: Treats terrorism as a law enforcement issue, prosecuting members and disrupting financing.

• Negotiation and Compromise: Engages in dialogue or concessions to reduce terrorist motivations and end violence.