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URINARY ELIMINATION (8)

• urinary tract infections: caused by bacteria in the urinary tract

• symptoms: frequency, burning w/ urination, cloudy/malodorous urine, lower abd/back pain

• kidney stones (nephrolithiasis): hard deposits made of minerals & salts that form in the kidneys; 4 types (calcium, uric acid, stuvite, cystine)

• symptoms: renal cholic (may radiate), stomach/back pain, fever, blood in urine, vomiting

• incontinence: involuntary leakage of urine not a disease, but a symptom

• stress: occurs during activity, coughing, laughing, etc.

• urge: overactivity of detrusor muscle

• overflow: due to bladder pressure exceeding urethral pressure

• neurogenic: impaired neuro system

• functional: lack of cognitive function d/t dementia or immobility

• uremia: high plasma urea concentration

• glomerulonephritis: inflammation of the glomeruli

• symptoms: bloody/foamy urine, edema (of face or limbs)

• urinary tract obstructions

REPRODUCTION (20)

• hormonal regulation

• gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): stimulates secretion of gonadotropins (FSH & LH) from anterior pituitary gland

  • luteinizing hormone (LH):

    • F) triggers ovulation & promotes development of corpus luteum

    • M) stimulates testosterone production by Leydig cells of tests

  • follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH):

    • F) promotes development of ovarian follicle & stimulates estrogen secretion

    • M) promotes development of testes & spermatogenesis by Sertoli cells

• inhibin: inhibits FSH production in anterior pituitary

• human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG): supports corpus luteum which secretes estrogen & progesterone during weeks 1-7 of pregnancy

• puberty: onset of sexual maturation (8-9 years F, 11 years M)

• menstrual cycle

  • menstruation (day 1-5): functional layer of endometrium disintegrates & is discharged

  • follicular phase (day 6-14): rise in FSH (+ follicle production), rise in estrogen (endometrial cells proliferate, + LH), follicule develops → mature egg

  • ovulation (day 14): release of ovum from mature follicle

  • luteal phase (day 15-28): egg released from ovary → uterus, rise in progesterone, follicle → corpus luteum

• dysmenorrhea: painful menstruation d/t prostaglandins in ovulatory cycles

  • primary: begins with onset of ovulatory cycles (begins in adolescence)

  • secondary: related to pathologic disorders

• polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS): excess androgen hormone → numerous small cysts at ovary’s periphery, dysmenorrhea/amenorrhea, weight gain

• insulin resistant: cells don’t respond to insulin

• adrenal: overproduction of hormones by adrenal glands

• inflammatory: chronic low-grade inflammation

• post-pill: develops after oral contraceptives

• infertility: inability to conceive after 1 year of unprotected intercourse with one partner

• STIs: collection of infections spread by contact with genitals or body fluids

• chlamydia: bacterial infection; can → PID, infertility, ectopic pregnancy, etc.

• syphilis: bacterial infection; occurs in stages

• human papillomavirus (HPV): causes warts/lesions of epithelial tissue or mucous membranes

• gonorrhea: bacterial infection

• pelvis inflammatory disease (PID): acute inflammation due to infection (STIs typically)

• phimosis: foreskin cannot be retracted over glans

• paraphimosis: foreskin cannot be replaced to original position after being retracted

• cryptorchidism: undescended testis

DEVELOPMENT (12)

• histone: protein that causes DNA to coil into highly compressed structure

• somatic cells: 46 chromosomes (23 mother, 23 father)

• gametes: 23 chromosomes (fused → zygote)

• autosomes: first 22 of 23 pairs of chromosomes

• aneuploidy: presence of abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell

  • trisomy: cell contains three copies of one chromosome (survivable)

  • monosomy: cell contains only one copy of any chromosome pair (often fatal)

• locus: position of a gene on a chromosome

sex-linked disorders:

males can NEVER be carriers

• Turner syndrome: female only has one X chromosome

• Klinefelter syndrome: male has extra X chromosome

autosomal dominant disorders: expressed equally regardless of sex, rare

• Huntington’s disease: causes motor, cognitive, and psychiatric disorders

• Marfan syndrome: tall/thin with long digits & limbs

autosomal recessive disorders: often appears in child, not in parents

• cystic fibrosis

• Tay-Sachs disease

• thalassemia

• sickle cell disease

X-linked recessive disorders:

• Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD): rarely affects females, progressive muscular degeneration due to body not producing dystrophin (→ diaphragm & heart stop working); no cure

OLD CONTENT

CELLULAR COMMUNICATION (5)

• neurons: made up of dendrite, axon, and soma

afferent (sensory) neurons carry info to the CNS

efferent (motor) neurons carry info from the CNS

• first messenger: extracellular chemical signals

  • hormones, neurotransmitters, growth hormones

• second messenger: intracellular molecules that relay info from cell surface → organelles

• downregulation: occurs when excess chemical signals are present, → decrease in # of active receptors

TISSUE TYPES

• connective: most common tissue in body, binds tissues

  • proper: loose, adipose, reticular, dense

  • specialized: cartilage, bone, blood cells

• epithelial: lines internal cavities/tubes and covers outer surface

• muscle: thin filaments (myosin), thick filaments (actin)

  • skeletal

  • cardiac

  • smooth

ALTERED CELLULAR METABOLISM (4)

• metabolism: aerobic (→ 36 ATP, carbon dioxide, water), anaerobic (→ 2 ATP, lactic acid)

  • catabolism: energy releasing

  • anabolism: energy building

• programmed cell death

  • apoptosis: cell suicide

  • necrosis: cell death in still-living organism

CELL ADAPTATIONS

• atrophy: decrease in cell size d/t decrease in work demands or adverse environmental conditions

  • uterus in menopause

• hypertrophy: increase in cell size due to increase in work demands

  • exercise

• hyperplasia: increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue

  • uterine lining after ovulation

• metaplasia: one mature differentiated cell type is replaced with another; typically in response to chronic irritation or inflammation

  • GERD

• dysplasia: deranged cell growth leads to caried cell size, shape, and organization

  • HPV-infected cervix leads to precancerous growth

SENSORY (6)

• cataracts: clouding of the lens leading to blurred vision, poor night vision, and light/glare sensitivity

• glaucoma: optic nerve damage due to aqueous humor build up in the eye

• open-angle: gradual IOP increase

• angle-closure: emergency!! rapid IOP increase

• macular degeneration: degeneration of part of the retina → loss of central vision

• atrophic (dry): slow progression

  • sx: night vision changes, difficulty reading

• neovascular (wet): rapid & severe progression involving the leaking of serous fluid & blood under retina → retinal tissue death, scar tissue formation,

  • sx: sudden vision changes

• visual acuity: myopia = nearsightedness, hyperopia = farsightedness

• conductive hearing loss: physical impairment

• Rinne: bone conduction > air conduction

• Weber: louder on affected side

• sensorineural hearing loss: pathological impairment

• Rinne: false negative, = bone vibrations bilaterally

• Weber: louder on unaffected side

• otitis media: infection of the middle ear

• Meniere's disease: inner ear condition that → vertigo, tinnitus, hearing loss, and feeling of fullness

• tinnitus: inner ear damage → constant ringing in the ears

• vertigo: sensation of movement while still

MOBILITY (4)

• fractures

phases of bone healing:

1. hematoma formation

2. inflammatory phase

3. reparative phase

4. remodeling phase

• Parkinson’s disease: progressive nervous system disorder due to imbalance of dopamine (low) and acetylcholine (high)

• osteoporosis: decrease in bone density/mass

NUTRITION (5)

• obesity

• starvation

• Kwashiorkor: adequate calories but protein deficiency → edema

• Marasmus: overall nutritional deficiency → muscle wasting & weight loss

• diarrhea

• constipation

• failure to thrive

• GERD

GAS EXCHANGE (8)

• asthma

• cystic fibrosis (CF): progressive inherited disorder affecting digestive secretory glands; affects neuro, GI, respiratory, integumentary, reproductive, musculoskeletal, and CV systems

• airway obstruction in children

• atelectasis: collapse of lung tissue

• aspiration

• pulmonary edema

• upper respiratory infections

• pleural effusion 

PERFUSION (10)

• hypertension

• peripheral arterial disease: rest pain & intermittent claudication, cool & pale, weak/absent pulses, dangle to relieve pain

• peripheral venous disease: dully/achy pain, pulses present, warm & edematous, elevate to relieve pain

• deep vein thrombosis

• introduction to heart failure

• embolisms

• Kawasaki's Disease: inflammation of small/medium blood vessels (leading cause of heart disease in children), occurs in 3 phases

• atherosclerosis

PAIN/TEMP/SLEEP (5)

• acute pain

• chronic pain

• temperature control

• sleep patterns

• sleep disorders

• pain theory 

INFLAMMATION (5)

• chronic inflammation

• acute inflammation

• gout: excess of uric acid

• osteoarthritis

• innate immunity

INFECTION (4)

• pathologic infection

• bacterial infection

• oral candidiasis

• influenza

TISSUE INTEGRITY (4)

• dysfunctional wound healing

• keloids

• pruritus

• dermatitis

• acne vulgaris

• acne rosacea

• impetigo

• psoriasis

• cold injury

• disorders of hair and nails