Unit 6 Full Guide

6.1 - The Origin and Influences of Urbanization

Learning Objectives

• Explain what urbanization is and what factors initiated it.

• Analyze how site, situation, transportation, migration, and economic change influence urban growth.

Key Vocabulary

Key Concepts

What is Urbanization?

• Urbanization refers to the shift in population from rural to urban areas.

• Urban areas grow as they attract people for jobs, education, services, and social opportunities.

Site vs. Situation

Origins of Urbanization

1. Early humans were nomadic.

2. Farming led to settled villages, especially in fertile river valleys (e.g., Nile, Tigris-Euphrates).

3. Agricultural surplus allowed job specialization.

4. Settlements grew and formed into early cities.

5. Cities became centers of trade, religion, defense, and government.

First Urban Revolution

• Happened independently in urban hearths: Mesopotamia, Nile Valley, Indus Valley, Huang He (Yellow River), Mesoamerica.

• Required:

  • Agricultural surplus

  • Social stratification (wealth, jobs, power distribution)

Diffusion of Urbanization

• Cities developed independently in different hearths.

• Empires (e.g., Roman, Greek) spread urban ideas like architecture, roads, aqueducts.

• Urbanization diffused through colonization, trade, and conquest.

Factors that Influence Urbanization

Transportation & Communication

• Transportation advancements reshape cities:

  • Streetcar Suburbs: Residents live in suburbs, commute via streetcar.

• Communication innovations (e.g., telegraph) connected cities faster, helping businesses and people interact over distance.

Population Growth & Migration

• Cities grow due to:

  1. Migration from rural to urban areas (often for jobs).

  2. Natural population increase (birth rates > death rates).

Economic Development

• Second Urban Revolution (Industrial Revolution) brought:

  • Job growth in factories

  • Urban land as a valuable commodity

  • Rich moving to suburbs, poor staying in industrial urban centers

• Rise of downtown business districts (CBDs)

Government Policies

• As cities expanded, governments had to manage:

  • Sewage systems

  • Housing regulations

  • Infrastructure development

• Urban redevelopment helped restore declining areas

Case Studies & Examples

Hoop Dreams Documentary (Socioeconomic Stratification)

• Follows two inner-city boys commuting to a suburban school.

• Highlights inequalities in education and opportunity.

• Shows how location and class affect life chances.

China: Rural to Urban Migration

• Massive shift due to economic opportunities in cities.

• Government initially discouraged migration; now urban areas are exploding.

Review Questions

1. What’s the difference between site and situation?

2. What factors led to the first urban settlements?

3. How did transportation influence the layout of cities?

4. How does socioeconomic stratification appear in cities?

5. What are the long-term effects of rural-to-urban migration?

6.2 - Cities Across the World

Learning Objectives

• Understand the differences between megacities and metacities.

• Explain how urbanization affects land use and city form.

• Identify new urban land-use forms like edge cities, boomburbs, and exurbs.

Key Vocabulary

Core Concepts

Metropolises

• Major central cities with dense populations.

• Function as national or regional capitals or economic powerhouses.

• Examples: New York City, London, Beijing.

Megacities vs. Metacities

Note: These cities face challenges such as congestion, pollution, housing shortages, and infrastructure strain.

Impacts of Suburbanization & Urban Sprawl

• Suburbanization = People move to outskirts for more space, safety, or affordability.

• Urban Sprawl = Cities grow outward without planning, leading to:

  • Increased reliance on cars

  • Environmental degradation

  • Loss of farmland and open space

• Decentralization = City functions move outwards (malls, jobs, industries), often enabled by highways and telecommunications.

New Urban Land Use Forms

Edge Cities

• Developed in the late 20th century.

• Located near highways and major roads.

• Contain more jobs than homes.

• Become destinations for business, shopping, and entertainment.

5 Characteristics of Edge Cities:

1. Over 5 million sq ft of office space.

2. Over 600,000 sq ft of retail space.

3. Daytime population > nighttime population (commuters).

4. Seen as an end-destination.

5. Were not cities a few decades ago.

Case Study: Tysons, Virginia

• Built near major highways.

• Grew rapidly with retail (Tysons Corner Center) and office parks.

• Mall developers chose the site due to transportation access and available land.

Boomburbs

• Rapidly growing suburban cities.

• Often found in Sunbelt states like Texas, Arizona, Florida.

• Appear suburban but have city-like populations (100,000+).

• Often lack a traditional downtown.

Exurbs

• Located beyond suburbs—more rural and spacious.

• Inhabited by affluent families seeking quiet lifestyles.

• May be near beaches, mountains, or farmland.

• Less walkable, lower population density.

Patterns & Challenges of Modern Urbanization

Review Questions

1. What’s the difference between a megacity and a metacity?

2. How does suburbanization differ from urban sprawl?

3. What are the five characteristics of an edge city?

4. Why do boomburbs challenge traditional definitions of suburban areas?

5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of exurban living?

6.3 - Cities and Globalization

Learning Objectives

• Understand the role of world cities in globalization.

• Identify the networks and linkages that connect cities worldwide.

• Explain how cities mediate global processes.

Key Vocabulary

Core Concepts

What is a World City?

• A world city is a global hub of economic, political, and cultural influence.

• They are centers of decision-making in the global economy.

• Influence extends beyond national borders.

Examples of World Cities

These cities have global power due to their business hubs, transport links, media influence, and international organizations.

Global Networks and Linkages

1. Transportation Services

• Allow people, goods, and services to move globally.

• Examples:

  • Airports (e.g., Heathrow, JFK, Tokyo Haneda)

  • Seaports (e.g., Port of Shanghai, Rotterdam)

  • Subway & rail systems

  • Highways & bridges

These make world cities accessible and economically efficient.

2. Communication Systems

• Enable real-time connection between cities and markets.

• Support global trade, diplomacy, media, and finance.

• Examples:

  • International news agencies (BBC, CNN, Reuters)

  • Telecommunication infrastructure (5G networks, fiber optics)

  • Social media platforms and internet providers

3. Business Services

• Found in most world cities and include:

  • Corporate headquarters (Google in NYC, HSBC in London)

  • Financial institutions (stock exchanges, investment banks)

  • International organizations:

    • WHO – Geneva

    • UNESCO – Paris

These institutions shape international policy and markets.

Functions of World Cities

Case Study Assignment – Research a World City

Use this framework to analyze a world city of your choice:

Quick Review Questions

1. What defines a world city?

2. Name three key services found in a world city.

3. How do communication systems help globalization?

4. Why is transportation critical to a city’s global role?

5. What distinguishes a world city from a regular metropolis?

6.4 - The Size and Distribution of Cities

Learning Objectives

• Understand how cities are organized in systems.

• Explain urban hierarchy and distribution patterns using key theories and models.

Key Vocabulary

Core Concepts

Urban Systems

• Cities form networks, depending on transport, trade, and governance.

• They serve different functions (economic, political, cultural) and support each other.

Urban Hierarchy

• Based on the size and importance of cities.

• Top: large cities with many services.

• Bottom: small towns with fewer services.

Rank-Size Rule

• Predictable population pattern in developed countries.

• Formula: Rank of a city is inversely proportional to its population size.

Example: If the largest city has 1,000,000 people, the 2nd has ~500,000, 3rd ~333,000, etc.

Primate Cities

• Cities that are more than twice the size of the next largest city.

• Often dominate in developing countries.

• Serve as political, economic, and cultural centers.

Examples: Paris (France), Lima (Peru), Bangkok (Thailand)

Central Place Theory (Christaller)

• Explains why cities and services are distributed in a hexagonal pattern.

• People travel short distances for low-order goods (e.g., groceries) and longer for high-order goods (e.g., surgery).

• Cities develop where market areas (hinterlands) meet.

Gravity Model

• The larger and closer two places are, the more interaction they will have.

• Used to analyze trade patterns, migration, and service use.

Review Questions

1. What is the rank-size rule? Where is it most common?

2. What makes a city a primate city?

3. What does Christaller’s model say about urban service distribution?

4. Define threshold and range with examples.

5. How does the gravity model explain city interaction?

6.5 - The Internal Structure of Cities

Learning Objectives

• Explain how cities are organized internally.

• Use urban models to describe land use, housing, and business locations.

Key Vocabulary

Core Concepts

Concentric Zone Model (Burgess)

• City grows outward in rings from the CBD (central business district).

• Zones:

  1. CBD

  2. Zone of Transition (factories, lower-income housing)

  3. Working-Class Housing

  4. Middle-Class Homes

  5. Suburbs

Based on Chicago in the early 20th century.

Sector Model (Hoyt)

• City develops in sectors (wedges) radiating out from the CBD.

• Land use aligns with transportation lines (e.g., railroads, highways).

• Certain areas are more desirable based on location and access.

Multiple-Nuclei Model (Harris & Ullman)

• Cities develop around multiple centers (nodes).

• Each node has a different function (e.g., industrial, residential, commercial).

• Recognizes decentralization and specialized districts.

Galactic City Model (Peripheral Model)

• Post-industrial city form, focused on automobiles.

• Edge cities develop around ring roads or highways.

• CBD still exists but is less dominant.

• Suburbs grow into independent business centers.

Bid-Rent Theory

• Land closer to the CBD is more expensive.

• Land use patterns:

  • Businesses (need exposure, pay most)

  • Apartments/housing (next highest)

  • Suburbs (cheaper, less accessible)

Review Questions

1. Which model describes a city with rings?

2. What’s the main feature of the sector model?

3. Why does the multiple-nuclei model reflect modern cities better?

4. How does the galactic model show decentralization?

5. According to bid-rent theory, who pays the most for land?

6.6 – Density and Land Use

Key Concepts

• Land Use refers to how land is utilized (residential, commercial, industrial, etc.)

• Density refers to the number of people or buildings in a given area.

Types of Density

Relationship Between Density and Land Use

• High Density → More vertical land use (e.g., skyscrapers, high-rises), less green space, public transportation is more viable.

• Low Density → More horizontal land use (e.g., suburbs), more reliance on cars, more private space (yards, parking lots).

Urban Land Use Patterns

• Zoning laws determine what type of building can be placed in an area (residential, commercial, etc.).

• Mixed-Use Development combines residential, commercial, and recreational uses.

Effects of Density on Cities

• High-density areas:

  • Efficient for public services (transit, utilities)

  • May cause overcrowding, congestion, pollution

• Low-density areas:

  • More privacy, space

  • Costlier infrastructure, urban sprawl

6.7 – Infrastructure

Key Concepts

• Infrastructure: The basic physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of a society (e.g., transportation, communication, sewage, water, and electric systems).

Types of Infrastructure

Urban Infrastructure Importance

• Supports economic activity (efficient movement of goods and labor)

• Enables urban growth and development

• Improves quality of life for residents

• Poor infrastructure can limit development and hurt public health

Transportation and Urban Form

• Public Transit supports compact, high-density development.

• Car-Oriented Infrastructure (highways, parking lots) supports low-density, sprawled urban form.

• Edge Cities & Exurbs: Depend on highway systems.

Smart Growth & Sustainability

• Smart Growth principles aim to develop walkable, compact, transit-oriented urban areas.

• Investment in sustainable infrastructure reduces carbon footprint and urban heat islands.

Study Tips

• Know the relationship between density and land use—it often comes up in FRQs.

• Be able to give real-world examples (e.g., New York = high-density vs. Phoenix = low-density).

• Use diagrams or mental maps of city models to visualize how infrastructure and density affect land use.

• Understand how urban planning (e.g., zoning, infrastructure investment) shapes cities.

6.8 – Urban Sustainability

Definition

Urban sustainability focuses on designing and managing cities to meet current needs without compromising future generations, balancing:

• Environmental health

• Economic vitality

• Social equity

Key Principles

• Smart Growth: Compact, transit-oriented, walkable, and mixed-use development

• New Urbanism: Promotes community, walkability, diversity in housing

• Green Infrastructure: Parks, green roofs, rain gardens

• Infill Development: Building on vacant urban land instead of expanding outward

• Sustainable Transportation: Walking, biking, public transit

Challenges to Sustainability

• Gentrification: Displacement of lower-income residents by wealthier newcomers

• Affordable Housing Shortage

• Pollution and Waste Management

• Traffic Congestion

• Environmental Degradation (urban heat islands, loss of green space)

Sustainable Strategies

• Investing in public transit

• Zoning for mixed-use development

• Preserving open space and farmland

• Promoting renewable energy

• Managing waste and recycling

6.9 – Urban Data

Definition

Urban data refers to quantitative and qualitative information used to understand, plan, and manage cities.

📈 Types of Urban Data

Sources of Urban Data

• Census (e.g., U.S. Census Bureau)

• GIS (Geographic Information Systems)

• Remote Sensing (satellite imagery)

• Government reports

• Social media or community engagement platforms

Uses of Urban Data

• Planning Infrastructure (roads, utilities)

• Monitoring Sustainability Goals

• Identifying Inequities (e.g., access to housing or healthcare)

• Disaster Preparedness

• Land Use and Zoning Decisions

GIS and Urban Planning

GIS is a mapping tool that visualizes spatial data. Planners use GIS to:

• Track land use changes

• Map public transit routes

• Analyze traffic and population density

• Assess flood risks or environmental hazards

Quick Review Questions

6.8 – Urban Sustainability

1. What are the three main pillars of sustainability?

2. How does infill development support sustainability?

3. What is one downside of gentrification?

6.8 - Urban Data

1. What is the purpose of collecting urban data?

2. Define qualitative urban data and give an example.

3. Define qualitative urban data and give one example.

6.10 – Challenges of Urban Changes

Key Concepts

Urban areas are constantly changing due to growth, decline, and redevelopment—these changes bring challenges.

Major Urban Change Challenges

1. Housing Discrimination

• Practices like redlining, blockbusting, and racial steering limit housing access for marginalized groups.

• Leads to segregation and unequal access to resources.

2. Uneven Development

• Investment is concentrated in wealthy areas while poor neighborhoods are neglected.

• Can increase inequality and social unrest.

3. Gentrification

• Wealthier people move into formerly lower-income areas.

• Pros: Revitalization, increased services.

• Cons: Displacement of original residents, rising rents.

4. De Facto Segregation

• Segregation that happens in practice, not law (e.g., based on income, race).

5. Urban Decay and Disinvestment

• As people and businesses leave, areas decline economically and socially.

• Often leads to blight, vacant lots, and crime.

6. Suburbanization & Sprawl

• People move to suburbs, leaving behind aging infrastructure and declining tax bases in cities.

6.11 – Challenges of Urban Sustainability

Key Concepts

Sustainable cities must manage environmental, economic, and social issues—this is not always easy.

Challenges to Urban Sustainability

1. Pollution

• Air, water, noise, and solid waste pollution increase with urban growth.

• Health impacts are often greatest in low-income areas.

2. Traffic Congestion

• Car dependency leads to long commutes, time loss, and pollution.

3. Waste Management

• Urban areas produce huge amounts of waste.

• Cities must plan for recycling, composting, and landfill use.

4. Heat Islands

• Urban areas are hotter than rural ones due to buildings, pavement, and lack of greenery.

5. Food Deserts

• Areas with limited access to affordable, nutritious food—often found in low-income neighborhoods.

6. Affordability

• Rising housing costs in urban areas push out lower-income residents, creating inequality.

7. Infrastructure Strain

• Aging water, transportation, and energy systems can’t keep up with rapid population growth.

8. Climate Change Resilience

• Cities must plan for flooding, heat waves, and other climate risks.

Review Questions

6.10 – Challenges of Urban Changes

1. What is gentrification and why is it controversial?

2. How does housing discrimination still affect cities today?

3. What is the difference between de facto segregation and legal segregation?

4. Describe one consequence of urban disinvestment.

5. How does suburbanization impact the economic health of central cities?

6.11 – Challenges of Urban Sustainability

6. What is an urban heat island and what causes it?

7. Why is traffic congestion a sustainability issue?

8. Define a food desert and explain why it’s a problem.

9. How can aging infrastructure be a challenge for sustainable cities?

10. Name one way cities can improve resilience to climate change.