Chapter 8 Review questions (Exam 3)
- Algorithm : Problem-solving strategy characterized by a specific set of instructions.
- Analytical intelligence : Aligned with academic problem-solving and computations.
- Anchoring bias : Faulty heuristic in which you fixate on a single aspect of a problem to find a solution.
- Artificial concept : Concept that is defined by a very specific set of characteristics.
- Availability heuristic : Faulty heuristic in which you make a decision based on information readily available to you.
- Cognition : Thinking, including perception, learning, problem-solving, judgment, and memory.
- Cognitive psychology : Field of psychology dedicated to studying every aspect of how people think.
- Cognitive script : Set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as an event schema.
- Concept : Category or grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, or life experiences.
- Confirmation bias : Faulty heuristic in which you focus on information that confirms your beliefs.
- Convergent thinking : Providing correct or established answers to problems.
- Creative intelligence : Ability to produce new products, ideas, or inventing a new, novel solution to a problem.
- Creativity : Ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities.
- Crystallized intelligence : Characterized by acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it.
- Cultural intelligence : Ability with which people can understand and relate to those in another culture.
- Divergent thinking : Ability to think “outside the box” to arrive at novel solutions to a problem.
- Dyscalculia : Learning disability that causes difficulty in learning or comprehending mathematics.
- Dysgraphia : Learning disability that causes extreme difficulty in writing legibly.
- Dyslexia : Common learning disability in which letters are not processed properly by the brain.
- Emotional intelligence : Ability to understand emotions and motivations in yourself and others.
- Event schema : Set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as a cognitive script.
- Fluid intelligence : Ability to see complex relationships and solve problems.
- Flynn effect : Observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the previous generation.
- Functional fixedness : Inability to see an object as useful for any other use other than the one for which it was intended.
- Grammar : Set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of a lexicon.
- Heuristic : Mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem.
- Hindsight bias : Belief that the event just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t.
- Intelligence quotient (IQ) : A score on a test designed to measure intelligence.
- Language : Communication system that involves using words to transmit information from one individual to another.
- Lexicon : The words of a given language.
- Mental set : Continuously using an old solution to a problem without results.
- Morpheme : Smallest unit of language that conveys some type of meaning.
- Multiple intelligences theory : Gardner’s theory that each person possesses at least eight types of intelligence.
- Natural concept : Mental groupings that are created “naturally” through your experiences.
- Norming : Administering a test to a large population so data can be collected to reference the normal scores for the population and its groups.
- Overgeneralization : Extension of a rule that exists in a given language to an exception to the rule.
- Phoneme : Basic sound unit of a given language.
- Practical intelligence : Also known as “street smarts.”
- Problem-solving strategy : Method for solving problems.
- Prototype : Best representation of a concept.
- Range of reaction : Each person’s response to the environment is unique based on their genetic makeup.
- Representative bias : Faulty heuristic in which you stereotype someone or something without a valid basis for your judgment.
- Representative sample : Subset of the population that accurately represents the general population.
- Role schema : Set of expectations that define the behaviors of a person occupying a particular role.
- Schema : Mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts.
- Semantics : Process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words.
- Standard deviation : Measure of variability that describes the difference between a set of scores and their mean.
- Standardization : Method of testing in which administration, scoring, and interpretation of results are consistent.
- Syntax : Manner by which words are organized into sentences.
- Trial and error : Problem-solving strategy in which multiple solutions are attempted until the correct one is found.
- Triarchic theory of intelligence : Sternberg’s theory of intelligence; three facets of intelligence: practical, creative, and analytical.
- Working backwards : Heuristic in which you begin to solve a problem by focusing on the end result.
1. What is the definition of intelligence?
• Intelligence is generally defined as the capacity to learn from experience, adapt to new situations, understand and handle abstract concepts, and use knowledge to manipulate one’s environment or think abstractly.
2. What are the different theories of intelligence? How many and what specific intelligences does each theory include?
• Spearman’s Theory: Suggests a single general intelligence factor, called “g,” that underlies all cognitive abilities.
• Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities: Proposes seven primary mental abilities including verbal comprehension, numerical ability, spatial relations, perceptual speed, word fluency, memory, and reasoning.
• Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences: Proposes eight (or nine) distinct types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and (later considered) existential.
• Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory: Includes three types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical.
• Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory: Integrates fluid and crystallized intelligence as well as other broad abilities like processing speed, memory, and visual and auditory processing.
3. What is the difference between crystallized and fluid intelligence?
• Crystallized intelligence involves knowledge and skills gained through experience and education, such as vocabulary and general knowledge.
• Fluid intelligence is the ability to solve new problems, use logic in new situations, and identify patterns, independent of acquired knowledge.
4. How is intelligence measured?
• Binet-Simon Test: Developed to identify students needing help in schools; focuses on mental age.
• Stanford-Binet Test: An extension of the Binet test for American children, administered individually, focusing on verbal and quantitative reasoning, memory, and visual-spatial skills.
• Army Alpha and Beta Tests: Group intelligence tests developed for the U.S. Army during WWI; Alpha was verbal for literate recruits, and Beta was non-verbal for illiterate or non-English speakers.
• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): A commonly used test for adults that assesses verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.
Pros and Cons:
• Binet-Simon: Pros—adapted to identify educational needs; Cons—limited scope.
• Stanford-Binet: Pros—versatile, used for children and adults; Cons—lengthy and expensive.
• Army Alpha/Beta: Pros—efficient for large groups; Cons—limited individual assessment.
• WAIS: Pros—comprehensive and widely used; Cons—requires trained administrators.
5. What does IQ mean? How was IQ originally calculated? How is IQ derived now using the WAIS?
• IQ (Intelligence Quotient) originally measured a person’s mental age compared to their chronological age (Mental Age ÷ Chronological Age × 100).
• Today, IQ is calculated using a standardized scale where a score of 100 is the average. The WAIS now calculates IQ by comparing an individual’s scores to age-based norms.
6. What is the Eugenics movement? How is it related to intelligence?
• Eugenics was a social movement that aimed to improve the human gene pool through selective breeding. It was related to intelligence as it often promoted the idea of selectively breeding for “desirable” traits, such as higher intelligence, and was associated with discriminatory practices.
7. Define each component of good tests:
• Standardization: Ensures that tests are administered and scored uniformly.
• Norms: Average scores from a large sample, used to compare individual results.
• Reliability: Consistency of test results over time.
• Validity: The degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure.
• Normal Distribution/Curve: A bell-shaped distribution of scores with most falling near the average.
8. Understand the extremes of intelligence – intellectual disability and mental giftedness.
• Intellectual Disability: Below-average cognitive ability with limitations in adaptive behavior, generally an IQ below 70.
• Giftedness: Above-average cognitive ability, generally an IQ of 130 or higher, often with specific talents.
9. What is the Flynn effect?
• The Flynn effect refers to the observation that IQ scores have generally increased over time, likely due to factors such as improved nutrition, education, and cognitive stimulation.
10. Is intelligence due to nature (genetics) or nurture (environment)?
• Intelligence is influenced by both genetics (nature) and environmental factors (nurture), with a complex interaction between genes and experiences affecting intellectual development.
11. What do we know about group differences in IQ scores?
• Research shows that average IQ scores can vary among different groups due to various factors, including socioeconomic status, education, culture, and historical access to resources. These differences should not be taken as indicators of inherent abilities.
12. What is stereotype threat?
• Stereotype threat is the risk of confirming negative stereotypes about one’s group, which can cause anxiety and reduce performance on tasks, including intelligence tests.
13. What is creativity?
• Creativity is the ability to produce ideas that are original, valuable, and often divergent from conventional thinking.
14. What is divergent thinking? Convergent thinking?
• Divergent thinking is generating multiple unique solutions to a problem, associated with creativity.
• Convergent thinking involves focusing on finding a single, correct answer, typically associated with analytical thinking.
15. What are learning disabilities? Dysgraphia? Dyslexia?
• Learning Disabilities: Neurological disorders that affect one’s ability to read, write, speak, or compute.
• Dysgraphia: Difficulty in writing due to problems with fine motor skills or language processing.
• Dyslexia: Difficulty with reading, often characterized by challenges with phonological processing and decoding words.
1. What is cognition ?/
Cognition is the brain's ability to think, perceive, plan, analyze, and remember. It involves organizing thoughts through concepts and prototypes and using schemata to navigate various situations.
2. What role do concepts and prototypes play in organizing our thinking ?/
Concepts and prototypes help us quickly organize our thinking by categorizing information, making it easier to process new information and respond appropriately.
3. How do schemata help individuals function properly in social situations ?/
Schemata are clusters of related concepts that help individuals function automatically in various situations by following learned patterns of thought and behavior, reducing the need to think twice about routine actions.
4. What are schemata, and where do they typically show up in daily life ?/
Schemata are mental constructs of related concepts, which often appear in social situations and daily routines, helping people to navigate familiar contexts without much conscious effort.
5. What is language, and what are its key components ?/
Language is a communication system that includes a lexicon (vocabulary) and a system of grammar. It enables individuals to convey meaning and understand others.
6. At what stage of life does language acquisition occur naturally and effortlessly ?/
Language acquisition occurs naturally and effortlessly during early childhood, following a predictable developmental sequence across individuals.
7. How does language influence cognition ?/
Language significantly impacts cognition by shaping how individuals think, perceive, and understand the world. It is also an area of ongoing study and debate in psychology.
8. What are some of the typical strategies used for problem solving ?/
Common problem-solving strategies include trial and error, applying algorithms, and using heuristics.
9. How can a large, complicated problem be effectively solved ?/
A large problem can be solved by breaking it down into smaller steps, which can be tackled individually, leading to an overall solution.
10. What roadblocks to problem-solving are mentioned ?/
Some roadblocks to problem-solving include a mental set (repeatedly using old solutions), functional fixedness (inability to use objects in new ways), and various cognitive biases.
11. What is intelligence, according to Sternberg’s triarchic theory ?/
Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence includes three facets: practical intelligence, creative intelligence, and analytical intelligence.
12. What is Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences ?/
Gardner’s theory suggests that individuals possess at least eight distinct types of intelligence, emphasizing the diversity in cognitive abilities.
13. Why is it difficult to measure creativity objectively ?/
Creativity is challenging to measure objectively because it is highly subjective and context-dependent, making it hard to quantify using standard tests.
14. What are some of the historical developments in intelligence testing ?/
Intelligence testing began with Alfred Binet. Later, Wechsler developed intelligence tests like the WAIS-IV and WISC-V, which are still widely used today.
15. Which intelligence tests are still in use today, as mentioned in the text ?/
The WAIS-IV (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) and WISC-V (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) are still in use today.
16. What is the purpose of the Bell curve in intelligence testing ?/
The Bell curve shows the range of intelligence scores across a population, highlighting average intelligence as well as standard deviations.