Biology SOL Review Flashcards

Variables: * Independent Variable ( $IV$ ): Factor changed on purpose ("I change"). Represented on the $X$ -axis (Mix). * Dependent Variable ( $DV$ ): Data or measurement collected. Represented on the $Y$ -axis (Dry).
Experimental Groups: * Control Group: Does not receive the $IV$ (normal group). * Experimental Group: Receives the $IV$ (test group). * Constants: Factors that must stay the same for a valid experiment.
Vocabulary: * Qualitative: Descriptions or qualities. * Quantitative: Measurements or numbers. * Observation: Gathers info via $5$ senses; Inference: Assumptions based on observations. * Theory: Supported explanation for a large body of info; Law: Description of an action.

Properties of Water: * Polarity: Slightly positive hydrogen and slightly negative oxygen. * Hydrogen Bonding: Attraction between different water molecules. * Cohesion: Water sticking to water; Adhesion: Water sticking to other surfaces.
Macromolecules: * Carbohydrates: Monosaccharide monomers; used for quick energy (e.g., Sugars, Starches). * Lipids: Fatty acid monomers; used for long-term energy and insulation (e.g., Fats, Oils, Waxes). * Nucleic Acids: Nucleotide monomers ( $CHONP$ ); store genetic information (e.g., $DNA, RNA$ ). * Proteins: Amino acid monomers ( $CHON$ ); used for cell function (e.g., Enzymes).
Enzymes: * Proteins acting as catalysts to speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy. * Factors affecting activity: $pH$ and Temperature (Optimum listed as $40^{\circ}C$ ).

Levels of Organization: Organism $\rightarrow$ Population $\rightarrow$ Community $\rightarrow$ Ecosystem $\rightarrow$ Biome $\rightarrow$ Biosphere.
Population Growth: Exponential (no limiting factors) and Logistic (reaches carrying capacity).
Limiting Factors: * Density Dependent: Food, water, space, disease. * Density Independent: Weather, natural disasters.
Energy Flow: * Original source: Sun. * Autotrophs (producers) and Heterotrophs (consumers). * $10\%$ Rule: Only $10\%$ of energy moves to the next trophic level; the rest is used or lost as heat.
Succession: * Primary: Starts from bare rock (Pioneer species: Lichen, Moss). * Secondary: Starts from existing soil (Pioneer species: Grass, small plants).
Cycles & Impacts: * Water Cycle: Involves Evaporation and Transpiration. * Carbon Cycle: Photosynthesis removes carbon from the atmosphere. * Nitrogen Cycle: Bacteria perform nitrification for plant use. * Invasive Species: New species introduced without natural predators.

Taxonomy Levels: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.
Scientific Naming: Binomial Nomenclature using Genus species.
Domains: Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya.
Kingdoms Overview: * Archaebacteria/Eubacteria: Unicellular, Prokaryotic. * Protist/Fungi/Plant/Animal: Eukaryotic. * Cell Walls: Fungi (Chitin), Plant (Cellulose).
Viruses: Non-living pathogens requiring a host cell; use Lytic (short) or Lysogenic (long) cycles.

Cell Theory: All living things are made of cells; cells are the basic unit of life; new cells come from pre-existing cells.
Cell Types: * Prokaryotic: No nucleus or membrane-bound organelles (e.g., Bacteria). * Eukaryotic: Has nucleus and organelles (e.g., Plants, Animals).
Organelles: * Nucleus: Contains DNA; Mitochondria: Site of respiration ( $ATP$ ); Chloroplast: Site of photosynthesis (Glucose). * Ribosomes: Protein synthesis; Cell Membrane: Regulates entry/exit.
Transport: * Passive transport: High to Low concentration, no energy (Diffusion, Osmosis, Facilitated Diffusion). * Active transport: Low to High concentration, requires energy (Protein Pump, Endocytosis, Exocytosis). * Tonicity: Hypotonic (swells), Hypertonic (shrinks), Isotonic (equal).
Energy Processes: * Photosynthesis: $Light\,Energy + CO_2 + H_2O \rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + O_2$ . * Aerobic Respiration: $C_6H_{12}O_6 + O_2 \rightarrow H_2O + CO_2 + ATP$ .

Cell Cycle: Interphase ( $G_1, S, G_2$ ) followed by $M$ phase (Mitosis/Cytokinesis).
Division Comparison: * Mitosis: One division, $2$ identical diploid somatic cells. * Meiosis: Two divisions, $4$ unique haploid gametes.
Protein Synthesis: * Transcription: $DNA \rightarrow mRNA$ (in the nucleus). * Translation: $mRNA \rightarrow Protein$ (in the ribosome). * Chargaff's Rule: $A=T$ and $C=G$ in $DNA$ ; in $RNA$ , $A$ pairs with $U$ .
Inheritance: * Genotype: Allele combo (e.g., $BB, Bb, bb$ ); Phenotype: Physical trait. * Homozygous: Same alleles; Heterozygous: Different alleles. * Monohybrid Cross: Predicts offspring probability using Punnett squares.
Mutations: Changes in $DNA$ (Frame shift, Point mutation, Insertion, Deletion).

Theory of Natural Selection (Charles Darwin): Favorable traits lead to higher survival and reproduction.
Evidence: * Homologous Structures: Similar internal structures, different functions (suggests recent common ancestor). * Analogous Structures: Different internal structures, same function (suggests similar environment). * Vestigial Structures: Unused structures (e.g., appendix, whale hind limbs). * Fossil Record: Relative dating (deeper is older) and Absolute/radiometric dating (exact age using $C_{14}$ ).
Speciation: Forming new species via habitat, reproductive, temporal, or behavioral isolation.