Revolutions of 1848 and the Age of Metternich

Period characterized by domination of conservative governments influenced by Clemens von Metternich.
Concert of Europe (1815):
- Engineered by Metternich to stabilize Europe after the Napoleonic Wars.
- Resulted in the rise of conservative governments across Europe, aimed at maintaining order and suppressing liberal reform.
Conservative leaders sought to reverse the chaos experienced during the liberal revolutions prior to this period.

Greece, under Ottoman rule, faced a conservative government.
Nationalists began a series of rebellions against Ottoman authority to establish independence.
Definition of Nationalism:
- Desire for a group of people to form their own nation based on shared language and culture.
Initial struggles saw Greeks defeated by the Ottomans; however, Britain, France, and Russia intervened.
- Their involvement was driven by the goal of weakening the Ottoman Empire rather than genuine support for Greek independence.
Greece achieved independence in 1832, marking a significant moment foreshadowing future revolutions.

Tsar Nicholas I ascended the throne after Alexander I's conservative reign.
Decemberists, a group of Russian officers influenced by liberal ideals, attempted a coup against Nicholas I.
Revolt was suppressed decisively, resulting in Nicholas intensifying the use of the secret police to quell dissent.

Charles X, a conservative monarch, attempted to restore pre-Revolutionary structures by stripping voting rights from the middle class and censoring the press (July 1830).
Response:
- Middle-class liberals and working-class individuals staged protests, leading to three days of violent insurrection in Paris.
- Charles X was forced to abdicate in favor of Louis Philippe, who, despite restoring some rights, maintained a conservative stance.

Fueled by dissatisfaction with the conservative order, revolutions erupted simultaneously across Europe, starting in France.

Discontent with Louis Philippe's conservative government and a bread shortage incited protests.
The king’s military response resulted in around 50 deaths, prompting widespread unrest.
Parisians built barricades, leading to the abdication of Louis Philippe and establishment of a provisional government.
This government enacted liberal reforms, but internal divisions arose:
- Disagreement between liberals and socialists regarding aid to the poor.
- Socialists advocated for government-sponsored workhouses, which were temporarily established but later dismantled by a conservative-dominated National Assembly.
Resulting frustrations led to more uprisings, and ultimately, Napoleon Bonaparte’s nephew was elected as president and later crowned himself Emperor Napoleon III, marking the failure of the 1848 revolution in France.

Inspired by France, calls for liberal reforms, constitutional changes, and unification of German states arose.
Prussia, the leading German state, initially suppressed revolts but noted the need for reforms.
- Delegates from various German states convened at the Frankfurt Assembly to develop a constitution for unification; however, the conservative monarchy stifled their efforts, leading to failure.

The Austrian Empire faced revolutions fueled by nationalist desires for self-rule from various ethnic groups.
Despite initial successes, Austria, supported by Russia, ultimately crushed these revolts, reflecting a broader trend of failed revolutions across Europe.

1848 revolutions, though widespread, largely failed and often resulted in increased conservative responses.
Russia experienced its own revolutionary tensions, culminating in events of 1905:
- Tsar Alexander II embarked on substantial reforms after defeats in the Crimean War, including:
- Emancipation of serfs.
- Establishment of an independent court for fairness before the law.
- Military modernization aligning with industrial growth.
His assassination led to a rollback of reforms by his successor, Alexander III, who focused on Russian greatness through military and industrial development.
Revolution of 1905:
- Mass demands for more liberal governance resulted in the October Manifesto, which included:
- Universal male suffrage.
- Legal citizenship for all Russians.
- Freedom of speech and assembly.
- Creation of the Duma, a representative legislative body.
- Despite these reforms, the Tsar retained veto power and later retracted some of the established reforms, showcasing ongoing tensions between governance and liberal desires in Russia.