Quiz 1 ISS
Chapter 1: Foundations of Social Science
1. Aim of Social Science – Social science aims to study human behavior, relationships, and societies systematically. It looks for patterns, explanations, and predictions about how people interact.
2. Probability – In social science, probability is used to predict the likelihood of events or behaviors happening based on patterns and data. It helps researchers make educated guesses rather than absolute conclusions.
3. Epistemology– The study of knowledge—how we know what we know. It examines different ways of understanding the world (e.g., experience, reasoning, research). The science of knowing; systems of knowledge.
4. Methodology – The techniques and procedures used in research to gather and analyze data. This includes experiments, surveys, interviews, and observations.
5. Tradition and Authority – People often rely on tradition (what has always been believed) and authority (what experts say) to form knowledge. While useful, these can sometimes lead to misinformation.
6. Errors in Inquiry
- Inaccurate Observations – Misinterpreting or incorrectly remembering events.
- Overgeneralizations – Applying findings from a small group to everyone.
- Selective Observations – Focusing only on evidence that supports our beliefs.
- Illogical Reasoning – Drawing conclusions that don’t logically follow from the evidence.
7. Variables and Attributes
- Variable – Something that can change or vary (e.g., age, income, education level).
- Attribute- specific value or category of a variable, such as age, that is characteristic of a person or thing.
8. Independent vs. Dependent Variables
- Independent Variable – The cause or factor that influences something (e.g., study time).
- Dependent Variable – The effect or outcome influenced by the independent variable (e.g., test scores).
9. Idiographic vs. Nomothetic Explanations
- Idiographic – A detailed, in-depth explanation of a single event or person.
- Nomothetic – Broad, general explanations that apply to many cases.
10. Determinism vs. Agency
- Determinism– The idea that people’s actions are shaped by external forces (e.g., environment, culture).
- Agency – The belief that people have free will and make independent choices.
11. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
- Qualitative– Descriptive research using words, observations, and meanings (e.g., interviews, case studies).
- Quantitative– Research using numbers and statistics to measure patterns (e.g., surveys, experiments).
Chapter 2: Social Theory
1. Macrotheory vs. Microtheory
- Macrotheory– Looks at large-scale social structures (e.g., societies, institutions). A theory aimed at understanding the “big picture” of institutions, whole societies, and the interactions among societies. Karl Marx’s examination of the class struggle is an example of macrotheory.Macrotheory deals with large, aggregate entities of society or even whole societies.
- Microtheory – Focuses on small-scale interactions (e.g., relationships, group behavior).
2. Paradigms (Major Theoretical Perspectives)
- Early Positivism – The idea that society can be studied scientifically.
- Conflict Paradigm – Society is based on power struggles (influenced by Karl Marx).
- Symbolic Interactionism– Focuses on how people create meanings through social interactions.
- Ethnomethodology– Studies how people make sense of everyday life.
- Structural Functionalism – Views society as a system where different parts work together.
- Feminist Paradigm – Examines gender inequalities and how they shape society.
- Critical Race Theory – Explores how race and racism affect social structures.
3. Elements of Social Theory
- Laws – Universal principles that explain social behaviors.
- Theory – A general explanation of how things work.
- Axioms – Self-evident truths that don’t need further proof.
- Propositions– Statements that link concepts in a theory.
- Hypothesis – A testable statement about relationships between variables.
4. Traditional Model of Science
- Involves theory, hypothesis formation and testing through research.
5. Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning
- Deductive Reasoning – Starts with a theory, forms a hypothesis, and tests it with data.
- Inductive Reasoning– Starts with data, identifies patterns, and develops a theory.
Chapter 3: Ethics in Social Research
1. Voluntary Participation – Participants must agree to take part in research willingly.
2. Protection from Harm – Researchers must ensure that participants are not physically or emotionally harmed.
3. Informed Consent – Participants must be fully informed about the research and agree before participating.
4. Anonymity vs. Confidentiality
- Anonymity– No one (not even the researcher) knows who participated.
- Confidentiality – The researcher knows but keeps participant identities private.
5. Deception – Sometimes used in research, but must be justified and followed by debriefing.
6. Ethical Issues in Analysis and Reporting – Researchers must report findings honestly and avoid misrepresenting data.
7. Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) – Committees that review research proposals to ensure they meet ethical standards.
8. AAPOR Code of Professional Ethics and Practice – Ethical guidelines for survey researchers.
9. Key Ethical Studies
- Humphreys’ Tearoom Study – Studied male sexual behavior in public restrooms without consent, raising ethical concerns.
- Milgram’s Obedience Study – Tested obedience to authority by having participants administer (fake) shocks to others, raising concerns about psychological harm.
10. Ethical Issues vs. Political Issues
- Ethical Issues – Focus on harm, consent, and honesty.
- Political Issues – Focus on broader societal debates and controversies about research topics.