Exam 1

1. Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology

  1. Levels of Organization

    • Atoms, Molecules, Cells, Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, Organisms

  2. Characteristics of Life

    • Reproduction: Passing genetic information to offspring.

    • Growth and Differentiation: Increasing cell size or number; cell specialization in multicellular organisms.

    • Metabolism: Acquiring and utilizing energy to fuel cellular processes.

    • Response: Processing internal and external environmental stimuli.

  3. Biomolecules

    • Carbohydrates: Composed of sugar molecules; used in cellular respiration to produce ATP energy.

    • Proteins: Composed of amino acids; function in transport, structure, enzymatic activity, and support.

    • Lipids: Fats used for connective tissue, insulation, and long-term energy storage.

    • Nucleic Acids: Composed of nucleotides; store and process genetic information.

  4. Anatomical Terminology

    • Directional Terms:

      • Anterior: Toward the front.

      • Posterior: Toward the back/behind.

      • Medial: Toward the body's midline.

      • Lateral: Away from the body's midline.

      • Proximal: Toward an attachment site.

      • Distal: Away from an attachment site.

    • Anatomical Planes:

      • Midsagittal: Divides the body into equal left and right halves along the midline.

      • Parasagittal: A cut parallel to the midsagittal plane.

      • Frontal: Divides the body into anterior and posterior sections.

      • Transverse: Divides the body into superior and inferior sections.

    • Body Cavities:

      • Cranial Cavity: Holds the brain.

      • Vertebral Canal: Holds the spinal cord.

      • Thoracic Cavity: Chest region; includes the pleural cavities (lungs) and pericardial cavity (heart).

      • Abdominal Cavity: Holds the stomach, liver, spleen, and intestines.

      • Pelvic Cavity: Holds the urinary bladder and reproductive organs.

2. Cytology and Mitosis

  1. Cell Theory

    • Cells are the building blocks of all life.

    • Cells are produced by the division of pre-existing cells.

    • Cells are the smallest structural units performing all vital functions.

  2. Cell Structure and Organelles

    • Cell Types:

      • Prokaryotic Cells: Contain only non-membranous organelles.

      • Eukaryotic Cells: Contain both membranous and non-membranous organelles (found in animals, plants, and fungi).

    • Organelle Functions:

      • Nucleus: Houses DNA, produces mRNA and ribosomes.

      • Ribosomes: Read mRNA to synthesize proteins.

      • Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): Primary site of protein synthesis.

      • Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): Synthesizes lipids and detoxifies toxins.

      • Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, packages, and directs proteins for secretion or intracellular use.

      • Mitochondria: Performs cellular respiration to generate ATP from glucose.

      • Cytoskeleton: Network of protein fibers providing structure, shape, movement, and transport.

  3. Plasma Membrane and Transport

    • Structure: Phospholipid bilayer with hydrophilic phosphate heads and hydrophobic lipid tails. Projections called microvilli increase surface area.

    • Integral Proteins:

      • Channel: Allows specific ions to enter or exit.

      • Gated Channel: Requires specific activation to open for ion transport.

      • Receptor: Binds to extracellular chemical messengers (e.g., hormones).

      • Enzyme: Catalyzes breakdown of chemical messengers and other molecules.

      • Cell Identity Marker: Distinguishes self-cells from foreign cells.

      • Cell Adhesion Molecule (CAM): Binds cells together to form tissues.

    • Transport Mechanisms:

      • Passive Transport: Movement down a concentration gradient (high to low concentration) without energy input. Includes diffusion and osmosis (movement of water).

      • Active Transport: Movement against a concentration gradient (low to high concentration), requiring ATP energy.

      • Selective Permeability: Regulates entry and exit of molecules through membrane mechanisms.

  4. Intercellular Attachments

    • Tight Junction: Interlocking cell adhesion proteins fuse membranes with minimal space.

    • Desmosome: Strong connection utilizing plaques, anchoring cytoskeleton, and CAMs, maintaining a small intercellular gap.

    • Gap Junction: Intercellular connection with direct pore channels allowing rapid passage of ions and molecules.

  5. Mitosis and Cell Division (Ordered Process)

    1. S Phase: DNA duplication occurs.

    2. Prophase: Nuclear membrane breaks down to release chromatin/DNA.

    3. Metaphase: Chromosomes align along the equatorial middle of the cell.

    4. Anaphase: Cytoskeletal spindle fibers pull chromosomes to opposite poles.

    5. Telophase: Two new nuclei form around separated chromosomes.

    6. Cytokinesis: Cytoplasm divides, separating into two individual daughter cells.

3. Histology: Tissues, Glands, and Membranes

  1. Primary Tissue Types

    • Epithelial: Functions in protection, absorption, and secretion.

    • Connective: Supports, binds, and protects body structures.

    • Muscle: Contracts to generate mechanical movement.

    • Nervous: Transmits rapid electrical signals for sensory processing and motor commands.

  2. Epithelial Tissue Classifications

    • Cell Shapes:

      • Squamous: Irregular, flattened shape.

      • Cuboidal: Cube or square shape.

      • Columnar: Tall, pillar-like shape.

    • Layering:

      • Simple: Single layer of cells.

      • Stratified: Multiple layers of cells.

    • Surfaces & Basement Membrane:

      • Apical Surface: Faces the lumen or external environment.

      • Basal Surface: Underside of epithelial tissue attached to basement membrane.

      • Lateral Surface: Intercellular boundaries between adjacent epithelial cells.

      • Basement Membrane: Connects epithelium to underlying tissue; contains the basal lamina (secreted by epithelium) and reticular lamina (secreted by connective tissue).

  3. Glands and Secretion Methods

    • Gland Types:

      • Exocrine Glands: Release secretions onto surfaces or into lumens.

      • Endocrine Glands: Release hormones into interstitial fluid or bloodstream via exocytosis.

      • Unicellular Glands: Single cell secretors (e.g., goblet cells).

      • Multicellular Glands: Multi-celled glands forming sheet or tube structures.

      • Serous Exocrine Glands: Secrete watery solutions filling body cavities.

      • Mucous Exocrine Glands: Secrete mucins to form slippery mucus.

    • Secretion Mechanisms:

      • Eccrine (Merocrine): Direct secretion via exocytosis without cell loss or damage.

      • Apocrine: Product is shed bound in vesicles from apical cytoplasm.

      • Holocrine: Secretion builds up until entire cell lyses and dies.

  4. Connective Tissue Classifications

    • Connective Tissue Proper:

      • Loose Connective Tissue:

      • Areolar: Ground substance rich; composes upper papillary dermis.

      • Adipose: Fat storage tissue.

      • Reticular: Reticular fiber matrix supporting organs like the liver and spleen.

      • Dense Connective Tissue:

      • Regular: Collagen fibers aligned in parallel arrangements.

      • Irregular: Unpatterned, multidirectional collagen fibers (dermis).

    • Fluid Connective Tissue:

      • Blood: Watery plasma matrix carrying RBCs, WBCs, and platelets.

      • Lymph: Interstitial fluid matrix carrying lymphocytes and macrophages.

    • Supporting Connective Tissue:

      • Cartilage: Chondroblasts harden matrix with sulfate (elastic, hyaline, fibrous).

      • Bone: Osteoblasts mineralize matrix with calcium phosphate.

  5. Tissue Membranes

    • Membrane Composition: Epithelium supported by underlying connective tissue.

    • Cutaneous Membrane: Skin; 5-layered epithelial boundary providing protection, absorption, and secretion.

    • Mucous Membrane: Lines respiratory and digestive tracts; secretes mucus to trap pathogens or protect against autodigestion.

    • Serous Membrane: Lines internal cavities; secretes serous fluid to diminish friction.

    • Synovial Membrane: Lines joint cavities; secretes lubricating synovial fluid.

4. Integumentary System

  1. Layers of the Epidermis (Deep to Superficial)

    1. Stratum Basale: Deepest mitotic layer.

    2. Stratum Spinosum: Interlocking spiny layer.

    3. Stratum Granulosum: Keratin production layer.

    4. Stratum Lucidum: Clear layer found exclusively in thick skin (palms and soles).

    5. Stratum Corneum: Superficial layer composed of flat, dead keratinized cells.

  2. Epidermal and Dermal Cells

    • Keratinocytes: Main epidermal cell; produces tough, waterproof keratin protein.

    • Melanocytes: Produce melanin to shield nuclei from UV radiation.

    • Tactile (Merkel) Cells: Sensory cells involved in perceiving light touch.

    • Dendritic (Langerhans) Cells: Mobile macrophages carrying out phagocytosis.

    • Fibroblasts: Produce collagen fibers; essential for tissue repair and scar formation.

    • Mast Cells: Produce histamine to dilate blood vessels and trigger inflammation.

  3. Dermal and Subcutaneous Structures

    • Dermis: Middle layer of connective tissue.

      • Papillary Layer: Superficial region with dermal papillae creating epidermal ridges (fingerprints).

      • Reticular Layer: Deep, dense connective tissue layer above hypodermis.

    • Hypodermis: Subcutaneous adipose tissue layer.

    • Integumentary Structures:

      • Sebaceous Gland: Produces sebum/oil for skin lubrication.

      • Arrector Pili Muscle: Smooth muscle contracting to erect hair for thermal insulation.

      • Hair Follicle & Hair Receptor: Hair structure embedded in tissue wrapped with sensory nerves to detect movement.

      • Sensory Nerve Fibers: Communicate tactile, thermal, vibrational, and pain stimuli.

      • Motor Nerve Fibers: Send brain signal commands to cutaneous glands and smooth muscles.