psychology final exam pt 1

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 1

Ultra social organisms 

Humans are amongst the most social living species 

• humans may be considered ultrasocial, along with a few types of insects and rodents 

• Ants and bees, termites, mole rats

• Ultra social organisms form large societies, divide labour, and cooperate for mutual benefit 

• they have food management systems (agriculture)

Social psychology - study of the causes and consequences of being social 

focusing on a few aspects of being social:

• Cooperation and competition 

• Group behaviour

• Altruism

• Reproduction/ romantic relationships

Competition and Cooperation 

animals social behaviour is determined by the scarcity of their resources 

Cooperation - working together toward common goals

Competition - struggling with one another to obtain limited resources 

—> Aggression—behaviour with the purpose of harming another 

• competition and cooperation both serve the same purpose: survival 

Cooperation 

• behaviour by two or more individuals that leads to mutual benefit 

• cooperation is one way of solving the problem of scarcity or resources 

• cooperation can also be risky

Group Cognition 

Groups - are collections of people that have something in common that distinguishes them from others 

• ex. families, teams, religions, cults, ethnicities, nations 

• We tend to have positive prejudices and exhibit positive discrimination toward members of our in-group

• group biases may be deeply ingrained in human evolution 

• present in non-human primates 

• shirt colour, arm band colour 

Group Cognition pt2

• experience with diversity in childhood decreases group biases

• ex. white students with black teachers in Chicago 

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PT 2

• kinzer, Dupoux, and Spelke examined in-group preferences amongst infants and kindergarten-aged children in Chicago and Paris 

Implicit Association Test

• one measure of implicit bias is called the Implicit Association Test

• it measures biases that we are unable to prepare ourselves…

• these differ from biases that we are unwilling to report ourselves

Group Cognition

• Group cognition comes with other risks…

Group polarization 

• groups sometimes make decisions that are more extreme than any member would have made alone 

Groupthink

• groups can sometimes reach consensus too easily 

Diffusion of responsibility 

• individuals feel diminished responsibility for their actions when surrounded by others acting the same way 

Common knowledge effect 

• group discussions sometimes revolve around information that everyone shares

Aggression 

• One hypothesis for why humans and other animals agrees is the frustration-aggression

hypothesis: animals are aggressive when their desires are frustrated 

BUT researchers argue that this hypothesis is UNTRUE 

• humans sometimes agrees when they are feeling negative emotional states or experiencing physical discomfort 

Individual Differences in Aggression 

• humans are more likely to aggress:

• Genetics, biological factors, sex, culture, environmental factors, testosterone levels, societal expectations 

Biology and Aggression 

• The greatest predictors of an individual's level of aggression are…

• their immediate family members, sex

• males are significantly more aggressive than females

Testosterone and Aggression 

Why does testosterone make ppl more aggressive?

• it actually decreases individuals threat assessments when in danger 

• ppl with more testosterone may be less afraid of retaliation 

Culture and Aggression 

• aggression is evolutionarily adaptive 

Altruism

• cooperation helps us acquire and protect our resources 

• It’s adaptive for our survival 

altruism - is behaviour that benefits another without benefiting oneself 

• Kinship selection - extending “altruistic” behaviour to related individuals, this increasing the likelihood that one’s genetic material will be passed on 

• Recreation - extending “altruistic” behaviour with the expectation that the favour will be returned 

Reproduction 

• Reproduction is one way in which almost all animals are social 

Selection 

humans are very selective in terms of their sexual partners 

• females (sex) tend to be more selective than males are..

• Biological factors: sperm count, egg count, physical requirements/ changes of pregnancy, males can keep reproducing constantly; females can only reproduce approximately once a year 

• women are more selective than men because of societal pressure..

• Cultural courtship rituals can affect this selectivity 

Attraction 

ppl tend to choose sexual partners based on: 

• Physical 

• Situational 

• Psychological 

Physical attraction 

• one of the first thing we notice about a social partner is their physical appearance 

• this factor is the most powerful at first 

• beauty is universally beneficial but it’s not universal😭 

Situational attraction 

• exposure effect is the tendency for humans to become more attracted to each other with repeated exposure 

Capilano Bridge experiment - researchers conducted research on two bridges…

1. Capilano bridge - high, unstable, and wobbly

2. A low, stable bridge - safe and not arousing 

Procedure

• male participants crossing the bridge were approached by an attractive women who asked them to complete a survey and gave them their phone number 

Results

• men on the unstable bridge were more likely to call the attractive female then the ones on the stable 

Conclusion 

• men on the unstable bridge experienced physical arousal (fear, adrenaline) and mistaken it for romantic or sexual attraction to the woman

Psychological attraction 

we are more attracted to ppl who are similar to ourselves…

• level of education, religion, personality 

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PT 3

Controlling other People 

• we often attempt to influence other individuals, this is called social influence 

we will explore two motivations for this susceptibility:

• The hedonic motivation & Approval motivation 

Hedonic Motivation 

• the greatest motivation that humans have is attraction to pleasure and aversion to pain

• hedonic principle in emotion chapter was that..”all emotion is rooted in approach to pleasure and avoidance of pain”

• Why do we attend university? 

• University -> better job -> high income -> more physical comfort and security -> pleasure 

• appealing to the hedonic principle is one of the most powerful ways to control others 

• government fines/ jail sentences appeal to the hedonic principle, bonuses at work, and teachers giving stickers to good students 

appealing to the hedonic principle can backfire when it's intrinsically motivated…

• In a study with children, pepper and colleagues (1973) divided into two groups:

Procedure

• Children were given a prize for drawing

• Children who were allowed to draw but not given a prize 

Result 

• Children who were given no prize were interested in the markers rather than children who already received them..

Approval Motivation 

normative influence - obeying norms because they make us more likeable

• normative influence causes us to conform to the behaviour of others 

Asch’s conformity study:

• asch asked participants to complete a very easy experiment 

• the seven other participants were research assistants

• he found that despite the obvious answer a significant percentage of the participants conformed to the groups incorrect judgment even when they knew it was wrong 

• 75% of asch's participants answered incorrectly, even though they clearly knew the correct answers because they chose to follow the participants before them - conforming to the groups incorrect judgment 

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY PT 1

Mental disorder

• persistent disturbance or dysfunction in behaviour, thoughts, or emotions that causes significant distress or impairment 

Medical Model 

• atypical, distressing psychological experiences are classified as illnesses that have biological causes 

Biopsychosocial model 

• atypical distressing psychological experiences are classified as illnesses that have biological, psychological, and social causes 

Psychopathology

• the scientific study of mental disorders 

• psychopathy = a specific term used in describing aspects of antisocial personality disorder

Overpathologizing 

• attributing diverse or atypical behaviours or thoughts to psychological illness, particularly when diagnostic criteria are not met 

Diagnostic criteria 

• a set of symptoms, behaviours, or characters that must be present in order to diagnose an individual with a disorder 

• diagnostic criteria for physiological disorders can sometimes be quite simple 

• for most psychological disorders, there is usually not a black-and-white diagnostic test 

clinicians rely on a set of criteria evaluated with a number of different instruments: 

• questionnaires and interviews 

• behavioural observation

• Patient history 

DSM-5 

the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders is in its fifth edition 

• used predominantly in North America

• uses a biopsychosocial model

• only used for diagnosis by clinicians 

• DSM-5 divides mental disorders into 22 categories, including:

• anxiety disorders

• depressive disorders

• bipolar disorders

• personality disorders

• obsessive-compulsive disorders  

includes information about each disorder that it classifies:

• diagnostic criteria

• onset

• prognosis

• risk factors / etiology 

• comorbidities

Diagnostic criteria 

most dsm have three diagnostic criteria in common:

1. causes significant distress/ affects functioning

2. cannot be attributed to substance use or other medical condition 

3. cannot be better described by another dsm diagnosis 

Onset: the chronological age or situational period when the symptoms of a disorder first appear in an individual 

• When does it usually start?

Prognosis: the likely course (trajectory, development) of a disorder

• What will happen next? When will the disorder go into remission? 

Risk factors and Etiology

Risk factors: a set of biological, psychological and social characteristics that increase the likelihood of having a disorder 

Etiology: the biological, psychological and/ or social causes of a disorder 

Diathesis-stress model: risk for a disorder combines with life circumstances to lead to the disorder 

• What causes the disorder? What makes one individual more likely to have the disorder than another individual 

Comorbidities: other psychological or physical disorders that frequently co-occur with the disorder in question 

• what other disorders often appear with this one? 

Complains of the DSM-5

the dsm-5 can lead to overpathologizing, many disorders are likely more spectral 

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY PT 2

Learning specific disorders

Anxiety disorders

• fear and anxiety are adaptive reactions to threats 

• It is typical to be fearful of a lion or anxious about an upcoming exam.

anxiety that interferes with normal functioning is maladaptive

• pathological anxiety is classified as one of the many anxiety disorders 

• 30% of ppl in Canada will experience one, only 5% are actually diagnosed 

DSM-5 recognizes 12 types of anxiety disorders:

• Generalized anxiety disorder 

• Specific phobia

• Social anxiety disorder

• Panic disorder

Generalized anxiety disorder: a disorder (GAD) is an anxiety disorder in which worries are not focused on any specific threat 

• we can use GAD to examine the different parts of the DSM

Generalized anxiety disorder: criteria 

• Diagnostic criteria 

1. excessive anxiety and worry, occurring more days than for at least 6 months, about more than one event/ stressor 

2. Individual finds it difficult to control the worry

3. Three or more of these symptoms:

1. Restlessness

2. Fatigue

3. Concentration deficiency

4. Irritability

5. Muscle tension 

6. Sleepy disturbance 

• Diagnostic criteria (three things common to all psychological disorders)

4. causes significant distress/ affects functioning 

5. cannot be attributed to substance use or other medical conditions 

6. cannot be better described by another DSM diagnosis 

Generalized anxiety disorder: Onset

• onset of GAD rarely occurs prior to adolescence 

• median age for diagnosis is age 30 

• many patients report having anxiety symptoms for a long time before reporting them 

• level of anxiety is constant throughout the lifespan 

• worries change from education, getting good grades, money and financial situations, aging 

Generalized anxiety disorder: Prognosis 

• for individuals, severity of symptoms waxes and wanes  across the lifespan 

Phobic disorders: phobic disorder is a disorder characterized by marked, persistent, excessive fear of specific objects, activities or situations 

• a person recognizes the irrationality of their fear but cannot control it…

Preparedness theory: Phobic Disorders

preparedness theory: we may be evolutionarily adapted to fear certain types of stimulus 

Evidence of this hypothesis is conditioning:

• it is difficult to eradicate primates’ fear of snakes via exposure 

• it is difficult to condition fear of other objects, even if they can be dangerous (electrician outlets, poisonous plants) 

• there fears may be overdeveloped in some individuals 

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY PT 3

Intro to Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders 

Serious mental illness 

• serious/ severe mental illness (SMI) are characterized by significant disturbances in thinking, emotional regulation, or behaviour, leading to significant distress and/ or impairment in social, educational or occupational functioning (WHO, 2022)

• schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder 

SMI’s involve Psychosis 

• experience in which a person's perceptions, thoughts, and mood are significantly altered 

Psychosis Vs. Schizophrenia 

• Hallmark experience of schizophrenia 

• Individuals who develop schizophrenia or psychosis will each have their own unique combination of symptoms and experiences 

• everyone with schizophrenia experiences psychosis but not everyone who has experienced psychosis has experienced schizophrenia 

DSM-5 SSDs (schizophrenia spectrum disorders)

Schizophrenia 

• chronic disorder with persistent psychotic symptoms like delusions, and disorganized thinking 

Schizoaffective Disorder 

• mix of schizophrenia and mood disorder symptoms

Delusional Disorder 

• persistent delusions without other major schizophrenia symptoms 

Schizophreniform Disorder

• similar to schizophrenia but lasts 1 to 6 months 

Brief Psychotic Disorder 

• sudden onset of psychotic symptoms; last 1 day > 1 month 

Substance / Medicine-induced psychotic disorder 

• disorder where psychotic symptoms are directly caused by use and/or withdrawal or substance or medication 

Psychosis OUTSIDE the schizophrenia spectrum: 

• Bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, dementia

Schizophrenia: DSM-5 Criteria 

• core symptoms (at least 2 required, with at least 1 being delusions, hallucinations or disorganized speech)

• continuous signs of disturbance for at least 6 months (1 month active phase)

Common Positive Symptoms 

Hallucinations

• hearing voices, noises - can give orders or commands 

Delusions 

• Persecutory (paranoia): someone is poisoning my food 

• Grandiose: I am the chosen one to save humanity 

• Referential: that song on the radio is trying to send me a special message 

• Thought control: the fbi is placing thoughts into my mind that aren’t my own 

Schizophrenia Phases: Proximal period, Active/Acute Phase, Residual Phase

Proximal period

• Initial deterioration in functioning, problems with thinking, memory, and attention 

Active / Acute Phase 

• core psychotic symptoms are the most prominent and severe, positive and negative symptoms can be present 

Residual Phase 

• occurs after symptom improvement, reduced positive symptoms, prominent negative symptoms 

Comorbid (Co-occurring) experiences: 

• depression

• Social anxiety disorder

• Post-traumatic stress disorder 

• Autism spectrum disorder 

• Medical comorbidity

Forensic Mental Healthcare System

• integrates both mental health system and criminal justice system, care for ppl with mental illnesses convicted of crimes 

• goals: serve the unique needs of people with mental illness who come into contact with the law 

Clinical Psychologists

• Conduct specialized psychological assessments as part of broader forensic assessments to assess issues related to intelligence, personality, and malingering (determining if someone is pretending/exaggerating 

symptoms of mental illness)

Mental health professionals in the Forensic Mental Healthcare system

Psychiatrists

• Lead forensic assessments (criminal responsibility, fitness to stand trial)

• Prescribe medications

 Nurses

• Look after daily needs of clients in the system; provide daily healthcare 

(e.g., medications), assist with activities of daily living, etc

Recreational Therapists 

• Help clients in the system meaningfully participate in recreational 

activities to improve physical and mental well-being (e.g., crafts, sports, 

group outings)

Social Workers

• Assist with the transition into the community, getting financial and community support.

Occupational Therapists

• Assist with improving daily functioning, including the ability to complete activities of daily living (e.g., cooking, taking medication) and employment skills