Two types of learning • Associative learning- a change as a result of experience • Where two or more stimuli are linked Types of associative learn

Learning-  lasting change caused from experience, cant be observed

Two types of learning

• Associative learning- a change as a result of experience

• Where two or more stimuli are linked

Types of associative learning:

Classical conditioning

• a form of associative learning between 2 or more previous stimuli

• 2 stimuli become linked for learning

• Discovered by Ivan Pavlov

Unconditioned stimulus- a stimulus that on its own creates a response

Unconditioned response- a physical response created by an unconditioned stimulus, does not need to be learned

Conditioned stimulus- initially neutral that eventually creates the same response as an unconditioned stimulus which its been paired with

Conditioned response- a physical response created by conditioned by conditioned stimulus, acquired through experience, usually the same as the unconditioned response

Pet training= classical conditioning

Processes of classical conditioning

Acquisition - the initial learning of the stimulus- response relationship

• The more pairing between the CS and the US, more likely the association will be learned

• The most rapid acquisition followed by the strongest response is a half minute delay

Extinction

• Reduction of a conditioned response after repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus alone

Spontaneous recovery

• Re-emergence of a conditioned response some time after extinction has happened

Stimulus generalization

 -what occurs when stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus trigger the same conditioned response

Stimulus discrimination

• What occurs when an organism learns to emit a specific behaviour in the presence of a conditioned stimulus, but not in the presence of stimuli similar to conditioned stimulus

Higher- order conditioning

• What occurs when a previously- conditioned stimulus functions as if itwere an unconditioned stimulus further conditioning

Operant conditioning

Non-associative learning

• Learning that does not involve forming associations between stimuli

• Learning occurs following repeated exposure to a single stimulus

Habituation

• Weakening of response to a stimulus after repetition

• Similar to sensory adaptation

• Repeating exposure helps people learn

Dishabituation

• A recovery of attention to a novel stimulus following habitation

• Not knowing other forms of the same thing

Sensitization

• Strong stimulus results in extreme response to the subsequent presentation of weaker stimuli

• Makes you sensitized to the smaller things after a bigger reaction

Phobias

• A persistent, irrational or obsessive fear of a specific object or situation

Systemic desensitization

• A process used to condition the extinction of phobias through a gradual exposure to the feared object or situation

Classical conditioning and taste aversion

• Conditioned taste aversion- a form of classical conditioning where a previously neutral stimulus creates an aversive reaction after it is paired with illness

•  example: the first alcohol you ever got drunk with

Operant conditioning

• A form of associative learning where behaviour is modified depending on its consequences; also called instrumental conditioning

• The behaviour that we engage in, we are more likely to engage in it depending on the behaviour we receive after

• Law of effect- behaviours leading to rewards are more likely to occur again, while behaviours producing unpleasantness are less likely to occur again

Operant conditioning and behaviourism

• Behaviourism- the systematic study and manipulation of observable behaviour

• B.F Skinner

• Organisms don’t simply just respond to the environment, but rather influences it

• Behaviours that are followed by favourable consequences will likely be repeated

Reinforcement

Reinforcer- an experience that produces an increase in certain behaviour

Positive reinforcement- presentation of a pleasant consequence following a behaviour to increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur

Negative reinforcement- the removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a response to increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur, negative reinforcement is not the same as punishment

• If we put on a seatbelt and it stops the constant beeping, we are more likely to put the seatbelt on again the next time 

Punishment

• An experience that produces a decrease in behaviour

• Positive punishment-  a presentation of an unpleasant consequence following a specific behaviour to decrease the probability of the behaviour being repeated

• Negative punishment- removal of pleasant stimulus as a consequence of a behaviour to decrease the probability of the behaviour being repeated

• Silent treatment, no car or phone privileged, or time out will decrease the behaviour from happening again

Positive reinforcement and punishment

Both examples, you are adding something

Negative reinforcement and punishment

In both examples, you are taking away something

Types of reinforcers

Primary reinforcers- a stimulus that has survival value and is therefore intrinsically rewarding; biological, food, water, termination of pain

Secondary reinforcer- a neutral stimulus that becomes rewarding when associated with a primary reinforcer; learned

Examples- money, grades, praise, approval

Types of punishers

• Primary punisher- a stimulus that is naturally aversive examples- slapping, loud sounds, extreme temperatures

• Secondary punisher- a stimulus that becomes aversive when associated with a primary punisher, examples- disapproval, criticism, bad grades

Schedules of reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement- behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs

• Learning occurs more quickly

• Intermittent or partial reinforcement- behaviour is only followed by reinforcement some of the time

• Behaviour is acquired more slowly and is difficult to extinguish

Intermittent reinforcement

Ratio schedule

• Fixed ratio schedule

•   -- reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses

• High rate of responding with pauses after reinforcement

Variable ratio schedule

• Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable, average number of responses

• High, regular rate of response

Interval schedule

• Reinforcement occurs every time a fixed time has elapsed

• Low rate of responding with increases as time for reinforcement approaches

Variable interval schedule

• Reinforcement occurs every time a fixed time has elapsed

• Low rate of responding as reinforcement is tied to time rather than output

Operant conditioning and new behaviours

• Shaping

• - introducing new behaviour by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behaviour until complete behavioural sequence emerges

• Ex. Steps in training an dog to roll over

• Behaviour modification

• A systemic approach to change behaviour using principles of operant conditioning

• Teaching new academic, athletic, or social skills

• Modifying undesirable behaviour

Observational learning

• Observational learning or social learning- where we learn from watching others

• Modelling- a behaviour is modelled, it is observed then learned

Vicarious learning

• Occurs when an individual observes the consequences to another's actions and then chooses to either duplicate behaviour or refrain from doing it

Mirror neurons- neurons fired when an animal or human performs an action or when they see another animal perform the same action

Learned helplessness

• A situation in which repeated exposure to inescapable punishment eventually produces a failure to make escape attempts

• Ex. Intimate partner violence

Where else do we see social learning?

Learning and cognition

• Implicit learning- refers to the acquisition of information without awareness

• Spatial navigation learning- involves formal associations among stimuli relevant to navigating in space

• Latent learning- a form of learning that is not expressed until there is a reward or incentive

• Insight learning- a sudden realization of a solution to a problem or leap in understanding new concepts

Prenatal and postnatal learning

• Prenatal learning

• Non-associative, exhibit habituation and sensitization to sensory stimuli

• Basic associative, can be classically conditioning

• Postnatal learning

• Newborns can imitate facial expressions

Learning disorders

Dyslexia- reading

Dyscalculia- math

Dysgraphia- writing