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Chapter 15 Epistemology – Key Vocabulary

Epistemology: Definition and Scope

  • Epistemology derives from the Greek words “epistēmē” (knowledge) and “logos” (reason).
  • It is a branch of philosophy that studies knowledge and addresses questions such as:
    • What is knowledge?
    • How do we acquire knowledge?
    • What makes our beliefs justified or valid?
  • Epistemology investigates:
    • the nature, origin, and scope of knowledge
    • the sources of knowledge (perception, reason, memory, testimony) and how knowledge is created
    • the conditions for a belief to constitute knowledge (truth and justification)
  • In essence, Epistemology differentiates justified beliefs from opinion or mere belief, and true knowledge from belief.
  • Why it matters: it helps understand the foundations, limits, and validity of human knowledge.
  • Foundational idea: knowledge involves more than belief; it requires justification and truth.
  • Note on terminology:
    • Belief vs. Knowledge
    • Justified true belief concept (in many epistemological discussions)

Types of Knowledge

  • Three main categories introduced:
    • Declarative Knowledge (theoretical, descriptive, propositional)
    • Based on facts, concepts, and information.
    • Expressed in declarative sentences; not tied to a single use.
    • Example: ext{Paris is the capital of France}
    • Also stored in books or on computers.
    • Procedural Knowledge (know-how, practical knowledge)
    • Knowledge of how to do something; ability to perform tasks.
    • Example: riding a bike, flipping a pizza in the air and catching it.
    • You can explain to someone else, but you often need practice for the body to learn the skill.
    • Often acquired through practice, experience, and repetition.
    • Relational Knowledge (knowledge by acquaintance)
    • Based on familiarity with a person, place, or thing obtained through interaction and experience.
    • Example: you may “know Robert” in ways others do not, through interaction and understanding of behavior, thoughts, and communication.
    • The same idea applies to a city: you may not know every street name, but you feel comfortable navigating it.
  • Eight types of knowledge are mentioned for the class, but the transcript only provides descriptions for several sources of knowledge (below). The introduction also mentions other general sources of knowledge (perception, reason, memory, testimony) as part of the broader discussion.
  • Note: The line about eight types signals a broader curriculum; the transcript focuses on several specified types/sources below.

Sources of Knowledge (overview)

  • The transcript enumerates several sources of knowledge, with explanations and examples for each:

Empiricism

  • Core idea: knowledge comes from experience and sensory observation (seeing, hearing, touching).
  • Example: learning about apples through senses rather than being told; running experiments to observe results.
  • Practical illustration: determine the temperature at which water freezes by performing experiments and observing results.
  • Contrast: Rationalism (knowledge via thinking/reasoning, not necessarily via experience).

Rationalism

  • Core idea: knowledge can be gained through thinking and reasoning without direct experience.
  • Example: solving a math problem in your head (no need to see or touch the object).
  • Contrast: Empiricism (knowledge via senses and experience).

Authority

  • Core idea: accepting information as true because it comes from an authority figure (parents, teachers, doctors, scientists, books, official documents).
  • Example: trusting an economist on inflation rates when reported on TV.
  • Caution: authorities can be wrong, especially on topics outside their expertise; critical evaluation is needed if an expert comments on areas beyond their specialization (e.g., immigration policy).

Introspection

  • Core idea: examining one’s own thoughts, emotions, and mental processes as a primary source of knowledge.
  • Common uses: relying on feelings to make decisions (e.g., choosing lottery numbers, judging whether someone looks suspicious).
  • Footnote (2) note:
    • Introspection can be understood as self-reflection and is linked to rationalism.
    • It is valuable in fields like psychology, but it is still tied to rationalist approaches.

Revelation

  • Core idea: truths or knowledge disclosed by a higher power or divine entity, often beyond ordinary human discovery.
  • Examples: direct messages from supernatural beings, insights from extraterrestrials.
  • Religious context: scriptures (e.g., Bible, Rig Veda, Quran, Tanakh, Book of Mormon) are often classified as revelation because they are viewed as direct communication from God to humanity.
  • Significance: revelation knowledge can be transformative and offer perspectives not attainable by conventional means.

Pragmaticism (Pragmatism)

  • Core idea: knowledge is a tool for action; values ideas by their practical usefulness and consequences.
  • Emphasis: knowledge evolves with interaction with the world; focus on practical outcomes.
  • Example: a pragmatic person emphasizes acting (cook a cake) rather than merely reading a recipe; the taste and outcome test the method and guide adjustments for next time.

Relativism

  • Core idea: knowledge, truth, or justification are relative to a context (culture, society, historical period, personal beliefs).
  • Example:
    • “It is cold today.” The meaning of “cold” depends on location (e.g., \,-10^ ext{°C} in Canada vs. 20°C in the Bahamas).
  • Implications: different contexts yield different standards for truth; does not automatically imply all views are equally valid, but validity depends on the context.
  • Contrast: Absolutism asserts universal truths that apply regardless of context.

Knowledge versus Beliefs

  • Distinction between belief and knowledge:
    • Belief: a mental state where a proposition is held to be true.
    • Knowledge: a justified true belief; it requires more than belief, including justification and truth.
  • Knowledge requires truth and effort (proof of truth).
  • Many philosophers have proposed methods to arrive at knowledge:
    • Plato: innate knowledge recalled through proper questioning (rationalism).
    • Aristotle: knowledge obtained through interaction with physical objects (empiricism).
    • Descartes: knowledge through radical doubt; only firm claim is existence if one can think (Cogito).
    • John Locke (spelled in transcript as “John Locked”): mind is a blank slate at birth; knowledge from experience (empiricism).
    • Immanuel Kant: synthesis of rationalism and empiricism; knowledge arises from both experience and innate ideas.
  • These philosophers helped shape epistemology and its role in philosophy.

Notable Formulations and References (key ideas)

  • The classic Cartesian assertion (Cogito):
    • \text{Cogito, ergo sum}
  • Knowledge as justified true belief (symbolic representation):
    • Let p be a proposition. Knowledge of p is expressed as:
    • K(p) \iff \text{Truth}(p) \land \text{Believes}(p) \land \text{Justified}(p).
  • Pragmatism emphasizes consequences and practical success as the measure of knowledge.
  • Relativism emphasizes context-dependence of truth and justification, challenging universal claims.

Connections to Foundational Principles and Real-World Relevance

  • Critical thinking and skepticism: question authorities when expertise is misapplied beyond their domain.
  • Distinguishing modes of knowing helps evaluate information sources in everyday life (news, social media, scientific claims).
  • Recognizing the limits of introspection and revelation encourages using multiple sources (empirical testing, reasoned argument) to approach knowledge.
  • Understanding relativism vs. absolutism informs cross-cultural communication and debates about universal norms.

Practical Implications and Ethical Considerations

  • Reliance on authority requires scrutiny of expertise and transparency about domain boundaries.
  • Empiricism emphasizes evidence and replicability; practical but may be limited by observation and interpretation.
  • Revelation as a knowledge source raises questions about interpretive authority and dogma; pluralistic frameworks can help balance belief systems.
  • Pragmatism prioritizes outcomes; ethical evaluation should consider long-term consequences and broader impacts.
  • Relativism invites cultural sensitivity but also requires criteria to assess the merit of different truth claims.

Summary of Key Concepts (compact reference)

  • Epistemology: study of knowledge, its sources, and justification.
  • Declarative vs. Procedural vs. Relational knowledge.
  • Eight-type framework (intended scope) with detailed discussion on the following sources: Empiricism, Rationalism, Authority, Introspection, Revelation, Pragmaticism, Relativism; plus broader references to perception, memory, testimony from the introduction.
  • Knowledge vs. belief: justified true belief; truth and justification required.
  • Philosophical lineage: Plato (innate knowledge), Aristotle (empiricism), Descartes (skepticism), Locke (blank slate), Kant (rationalism + empiricism).