Case Study 1: Japanese Expansion in East Asia (1931-1941)

Causes of Expansion

• Impact of Japanese Nationalism and Militarism on Foreign Policy:

  Japan’s rapid industrialization and modernization during the Meiji Restoration (1868-1912) positioned it as a superior power to other nations in East Asia.
  Japan wanted to expand further for resources, wider trade, and world dominance

  • Earned territory with the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905).

  • Japan pushed further with the invasion of Manchuria (1931) and expansion into China, leading to the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945).

  • Ultimately culminated Japan's entry into World War II following the attack on Pearl Harbor (1941).

• Japanese Domestic Issues:

  Japan’s Great Depression (1930s) put pressure on the government

  • Aimed for raw materials like oil, rubber, and metal

  Competing factions within the government and military competed for power and influence

  • Advocated for aggressive foreign policies.

  • Leaders rallied public support and diverted attention from domestic issues by focusing on external conquests.

• Political Instability in China:

  The political turmoil in China, marked by weak central authority and regional warlordism, provided opportunities for Japanese expansionism. The fractured nature of Chinese governance made it easier for Japan to assert control over various regions.

Events

• Japanese Invasion of Manchuria and Northern China (1931):

  The Mukden Incident (1931) was orchestrated by the Japanese military and led to the occupation of Manchuria.

• Sino-Japanese War (1937–1941):

  The invasion of China by Japan further intensified Japan's control over Chinese territories and strained relations with Western powers.

• Three Power/Tripartite Pact:

  The signing of the Tripartite Pact between Japan, Germany, and Italy in 1940 solidified Japan's alignment with the Axis powers. This pact aimed to establish a united front against the Allied powers (the US + UK).

  Outbreak of War + Pearl Harbor (1941):

  A surprise attack by Japanese naval air forces inflicted heavy destruction of aircraft + ships and casualties on the US Pacific Fleet. Prompted the United States' entry into World War II.

Responses

• League of Nations and the Lytton Report:

  The Lytton Commission's report (October 1932) condemned Japan's aggression and recommended the restoration of Chinese sovereignty over Manchuria. However, Japan rejected the report's findings and withdrew from the League of Nations (1933). This undermined the League's authority and ability to enforce its decisions illustrating the limitations of collective security.

• Political Developments within China—Second United Front:

  In response to Japanese aggression, various Chinese factions, including the Nationalists and Communists, formed the Second United Front (1937) to resist Japanese invasion.

  • The Second United Front was a temporary alliance between the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Communist Party of China (CPC) despite their ideological differences and past conflicts, the alliance allowed for coordinated military efforts and cooperation in areas under Japanese threat. The alliance played a crucial role in mobilizing Chinese resistance against Japanese aggression during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945).

  • After the KMT and the CPC dissolved after WWII, the CPC's victory in 1949 led to the establishment of the People's Republic of China, while the KMT retreated to Taiwan.

• International Response, Including US Initiatives and Increasing Tensions:

  The United States, along with other Western powers, expressed strong disapproval of Japan's aggression. The US enacted several measures aimed at ending Japanese expansionism

  • Diplomatic Initiatives:

    The Washington Naval Conference (1921-1922) was convened to address naval disarmament and promote peace in the Pacific region. The Washington Naval Treaty aimed to limit naval armaments and establish a framework for naval power in the Pacific.

    The Nine-Power Treaty (1922) affirmed the Open Door Policy in China and aimed to maintain territorial integrity and political independence in the region.

  • Economic Sanctions:

    Primarily targeted strategic materials such as oil, iron, and steel to limit Japan's ability to sustain its military campaigns and put pressure on the Japanese government to change its course of action. However, the economic sanctions intensified Japan's resolve to secure access to resources through military means culminating in the decision to launch at Pearl Harbor.

Case Study 2: German and Italian Expansion (1933-1940)

Causes of Expansion

• Impact of Fascism and Nazism on Foreign Policies:

  • In Italy, Mussolini's fascist regime aimed to revive the ancient Roman Empire and establish Italy as a dominant power in the Mediterranean region. Mussolini pursued a policy of territorial expansion, annexing territories such as Ethiopia (1936) and Albania (1939).

  • Hitler's Nazi regime in Germany sought to expand its territories and influence to fulfill its vision of a racially pure and hegemonic Greater German Reich. Hitler's foreign policy included the acquisition of Lebensraum (living space) for the German people, which justified the annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia, and later the invasion of Poland (1939), leading to the outbreak of World War II.

  Both Mussolini and Hitler pursued aggressive foreign policies characterized by militarism, territorial expansion, and the pursuit of hegemony (the dominance of one entity over others). Their regimes utilized propaganda and nationalist rhetoric to rally public support for their expansionist agendas, portraying territorial conquests as necessary steps toward national greatness and the fulfillment of ideological goals.

• Impact of Domestic Economic Issues:

  Unemployment, inflation, and the need for resources motivated Italy and Germany to pursue expansionist policies. Acquiring new territories offered opportunities for economic growth and alleviating domestic economic pressures.

• Changing Diplomatic Alignments in Europe + the End of Collective Security:

  The League of Nations was proved ineffective in addressing the aggressive actions of Italy, Germany, and other aggressive nations. Its failure to enforce collective security measures undermined its credibility and deterrence capabilities.

• Appeasement:

  The policy of appeasement -pursued by Britain + France (1930s)- aimed to avoid another conflict by accommodating the territorial ambitions of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler. Rather than confronting Hitler's aggressive actions, Western powers sought to appease him through concessions and diplomatic agreements, hoping to maintain peace and stability in Europe. Failed to deter further aggression and instead emboldened Hitler and Mussolini to pursue even more ambitious expansionist goals.

Events

• German Challenges to Post-war Settlements (1933–1938):

  Hitler's regime (1933) began a comprehensive program of rearmament -violated the disarmament clauses of the Treaty of Versailles- by expanding the military and new weapons and technologies.

  Germany remilitarized the Rhineland (1936) -a demilitarized zone established by the Treaty of Versailles to serve as a buffer between Germany and France- which violated international agreements and directly challenged the authority of the League of Nations and the Western powers.

  Germany began to assert territorial demands in Central and Eastern Europe to revise the borders established by the Treaty of Versailles.

  • The annexation of Austria (1938) and the demands for the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia led to the Munich Agreement and the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia (1938).

• Italian Expansion:

  Mussolini pursued the invasion of Abyssinia (1935–1936) and the annexation of Albania to establish a new Roman Empire and assert dominance in the Mediterranean.

  • The invasion of Abyssinia was driven by the desire for territorial expansion, access to resources, and Mussolini's desire to bolster his regime's prestige both domestically and internationally. It involved the use of modern military force against a much less advanced opponent and successfully occupied Abyssinia (1936).

  • Mussolini turned his attention to the Balkans and pursued the annexation of Albania (1939) to extend Italy's influence in the Adriatic Sea and strengthen its position in the Mediterranean.

  • Invasion of Albania

• German Expansion (1938–1939):

  Germany's expansionist actions intensified with the annexation of Austria (Anschluss 1938) and the occupation of Czechoslovakia (Munich Agreement 1938). The signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact between Germany and the Soviet Union paved the way for the invasion of Poland (1939).

Responses

• International Response to German Aggression (1933–1938):

  In response to Hitler's demands for territorial revisions, Western powers engaged in the Munich Agreement (1938). This agreement allowed Hitler to annex the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia in exchange for promises of peace and territorial integrity. However, it failed to deter further aggression and only emboldened Hitler to pursue even more ambitious expansionist goals.

• International Response to Italian Aggression (1935–1936):

  The League of Nations voted to impose economic sanctions (1935) against Italy in an attempt to pressure Mussolini's regime to withdraw from Abyssinia. These aimed to isolate Italy economically and limit its ability to sustain its military campaign in Abyssinia by putting restrictions on the sale of arms and certain goods to Italy. Britain and France were reluctant to enforce them fully fearing the consequences of provoking Mussolini's regime.

• International Response to German and Italian Aggression (1940):

  In response to the invasion of Poland, Britain and France issued ultimatums to Germany demanding the withdrawal of German forces from Poland. When Germany refused to comply, Britain and France declared war on Germany (1939). Numerous other countries joined the Allied cause, forming military alliances and coalitions aimed at confronting the Axis powers.