Psychology 8, 9, 10

==Chapter 8: Human Development==

Human Development- the study of the lifelong process of change and the environmental and genetic factors that influence it.

Physical
Sexual
Cognitive
Emotional
Moral
Social

Early Development Ideas

John Locke- children are born a blank slate “tabula rasa,” lead to behaviorism ideas (what is reinforced)
Jean Jacques Rousseau- children are born good and then society and environment interfere with natural goodness
Immanuel Kant- inborn characteristics and external world-drive development
G. Stanley Hall (Recapitulation Theory)- embryo development follows the path of evolutionary development of species (rejected theory, but used to support evolution)

Prenatal Development

Prenatal- the time between conception and birth
Zygote- conception until implantation
Embryo- once implants in uterus. By week 4 “neural groove” develops, by week 7 brain stem forms
Fetus- roughly 8 weeks gestation until birth. Beginning at week 8, fetus nervous system forms roughly 250,000 new neurons every minute. While in the womb can feel pain, responds to mother’s moods, have REM sleep and may dream, form memories and preferences.

Newborn Development

Reflexes From Birth:

Swallowing Reflex- swallow liquid without choking
Rooting Reflex- turns head when something touches cheek
Grasping Reflex- close fist around something put in hand
Stepping Reflex- make stepping motion if held upright and feet lightly touch a surface

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development:

4 Stages:

**Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 18 moths)-**discover causality and Object Permanence
Pre-Operations Stage (18 moths to 6 years)- Use symbols and language skills
Concrete Operational Stage (6 to 12 years)- Develop Conservation, matter doesn’t change because of form
Formal Operational Stage (12-18 years)- Abstract thinking, use logic, hypothetical situations, and draw conclusions

Freudian Psycho-Sexual Development:

Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year old)- gratification is mouth-oriented
Anal Stage (1-2 years old)- gratification centers on feces and parental expectations
Phallic Stage (2-6 years old)- gratification centers on sexuality and genitals
Latency Stage (6-12 years old)- sexual urges are dormant
Genital Stage (12-death)- spend the rest of our lives repressing or redirecting sexual energy

Psycho-Social Development

(Erik Erikson)

Like Piaget because he believed development went through stages
Like Freud because he believed that every stage has a crises that must be successfully navigated

8 Stages:

Trust v. Mistrust (Birth to 18 months)- do we form trusting relationships or develop a sense of mis-trust?
Autonomy v. Shame and Doubt (18 months to 3 years)- do we develop a sense of positive independence or shame and self-doubt?
Initiative v. Guilt (3 to 6 years)- do we have a sense of confidence/control or guilt/timidity?
Industry v. Inferiority (6-12 years)- do we develop a sense of industry, competence, and mastery, or inadequacy and inferiority?
Identity v. Role Confusion (12-18 years)- in the midst of rapid change, do we develop unique/appropriate aspirations and beliefs or self-doubt/confusion/rebellion?
Intimacy v. Isolation (18 to 40 years)- will we form lasting intimate relationships or turn to loneliness
Generativity v. Stagnation (40 to 65 years)- will we continue to contribute and have purpose of become self-centered and stagnate
Ego Integrity v. Despair (65-death)- will we look back on life with a sense of completeness or with bitterness and defeat?

Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg- interested in how we think about right and wrong

Pre-Conventional Stage- moral reasoning based on avoiding punishment and advancing own interests
Conventional Level- moral reasoning is based on conforming to the expectation of others and respect for authority
Post-Conventional Level- moral reasoning is based on internalized humanistic principles of justice, reciprocity, and human dignity

Attachment Theories

Attachment- the lasting psychological connection between two people

Secure Attachment
Ambivalent Attachment
Avoidant Attachment

Parenting Styles

Three main parenting styles and their influence on child development

Authoritarian Parents- produce anxious withdrawn children
Permissive Parents- produce children with poor social skills, poor emotional control and little persistence in tasks
Authoritative Parents- produce children who are friendly, cooperative, and self-reliant

Aging

As we age, we experience physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes

Social and Emotional changes as we age, increased risk of isolation and depression can lead to increased heart disease

Cognitive Changes:

Dementia, Parkinson’s Strokes, Alzheimer’s

Flexible and Crystallized Intelligence:

Flexible- basic mental abilities, abstract thinking, encoding short-term memories (new learning)
Crystallized- knowledge accumulated over a lifetime (existing memories)

Dying

Elisabeth Kubler-Ross- was famous for studying death and dying

Denial and Isolation- characterized by shock, numbness, and refusal to accept the news
Anger Stage- feelings of injustice and “why me?”
Bargaining Phase- try to find a way around it, or making promises to be able to avoid death
Depression- feelings of grief, depression, and hopelessness
Acceptance- a quiet expectation

==Chapter 9: Consciousness==

Definition of consciousness

The awareness one has of oneself and the environment
The capacity to be explicitly aware of oneself and to make explicit free-will decisions
The ability to establish meaningful relationships
The subjective experiencing of a stimulus or mental state
The ability to attribute goals
The locus for human decision making
The essence of Mankind’s God-likeness
Naturalist - consciousness is simply a product of brain activities reserved for the most highly evolved creatures
Christian - consciousness is part of our God-likeness and the way we interact with God and others

States of consciousness

Many states of consciousness, each with their own distinctive brainwave patterns

-Sleep/Dreams

-Daydreams

-Hypnosis

-Meditation

-Drugs/Chemicals

-Heat, fatigue, exhaustion, dehydration, malnutrition

Sleep- 5 stages

Stage 1: falling asleep, heart and breathing rates drop, may have odd mental images
Stage 2: short bursts (sleep spindles) of electrical voltage responding to sound
Stage 3 and 4: breathing deepens, muscles relax, groggy and confused if awakened
Stage 5: REM (rapid eye movement) sleep

Why we sleep?

Repair/restoration theory
Information Consolidation Theory
Adaptive Theories - has some type of evolutionary advantage

How much sleep?

Newborns - 18hrs
Teenagers - 9 hrs
Adults - 7-8 hrs
- As little as 4-5, as much as 10
- Pregnant women need more sleep
Sleep debt- the difference between the amount of time spent sleeping and amount of sleep needed
Sleep deprivation - chronic and severe lack of sleep - impaired thinking, lose motor coordination, hallucinations

Sleep disorders

insomnia, hypersomnia (sleep too much)
Somnambulism (sleepwalking), Somniloquy (sleep talking)
Narcolepsy
Sleep Apnea - stop breathing
Sleep paralysis
REM Behavior Disorder - acting out violent/intense dreams

Dreams

Dream is a form of though
Can occur in any stage, but most vivid and memorable in REM
Dream 4-6 times a night
Dream total of 6 years of our life

Why do we dream?

Evoluntional Theory - rehearse survival strategies
Activation-Synthesis theory - create dreams to explain the random impulses during sleep
Reorganize Neural Connections
Interpretation of surrounding stimuli
Information Processing
Resolve emotional conflict

What do dreams mean?

No one knows
Psychoanalytic theory - way to express our latent sexual desires
Symbolic representations of memories
Unconscious Problem Solving
Cosmic messages from “spiritual forces”
How does God use dreams?

Hypnosis

altered Trance-like state
Franz Anton Mesmer credited with discovery of hypnosis (Mesmerism)
James Braid - hypnotic induction using eye fatigue to induce hypnotic trance

Meditation

The practice of calming the mind and focusing attention
Christian meditation is focusing attention on God’s Word
Meditation is associated with long-term health benefits and stress reduction

Psychoactive Drugs - Definitions

alter consciousness, behavior, cognition, and emotions
Tolerance - need to increase quantity if substance to get same effect
Dependence/addiction - experiences unpleasant symptoms when not using the drug
Withdrawal -experiences unpleasant symptoms when not using the drug
Psychological dependence - mental or emotional discomfort when not using the drug
Physiological dependence - physical symptoms when not using the drug

Psychoactive drugs- 4 categories

-Depressants, stimulants, opiates, hallucinogens

==Depressants==

-sedatives or tranquilizers- they slow or depress neural activity

-Alcohol

-pain killers

==Stimulants==

-mimic adrenaline and increase neural activity

-caffeine

-Amphetamines (over the counter variety) and Methamphetamine (so and so cooked it)

-Cocaine

-Nicotine

==Opiates==

-Mimic endorphins and act like pain killers and stress reducers

-Heroine

-Opium

-Oxycodone (codeine and hydrocodone ) pain relievers post surgery

-withdrawal from opiates can be so sever that often use methadone (a long-acting opiate) to avoid withdrawal symptoms

==Hallucinogens==

-Produce hallucinations and mood changes

-LSD - Lysergic Acid Diethylamide

-Ecstasy

-Marijuana - from the cannabis plant, can result in changes in mood and behavior

-Amotivational syndrome (apathy, poor judgment, concentration deficits) can result from marijuana use

==Chapter 10: Thinking, Language and Intelligence==

Cognition- the mental processes of thinking, feeling, perceiving, problem-solving, and remembering

Cognitions are out thoughts
Thoughts and Language are completely intertwined
Concepts- categories by which we describe the physical word (birds, fishing, death, love)
Simple concept - a single feature in common (bird)
Prototype - idea example of a concept (bird = robin vs. ostrich)
Conjunctive Concept - 2 or more features in common (clouds and cotton balls are both white and fluffy)
Disjunctive Concepts -
Relation concepts - relationship between objects (bigger, closer, greener)
Schemas - the way we organize concepts, also called our worldview
Cognitive Scripts - psychologist term for our usual way of organizing concepts
- “throw a shoe”

Cognitive style

refers to the way in which you process information
Field Independent Thinkers - analytic and break thinking into smaller parts
Field Dependent Thinkers - big picture, meaning purpose
Deductive Reasoning - use of logic and algorithms to solve problems
Heuristics - simple “rules of thumb” as a mental shortcut

Decision making/problem-solving

One of the most complex of mental activities involving perception, memories, emotions, attitudes, and reasoning
Barriers
- Perceptual Barriers - if perception is faulty, solution will be faulty
- Fixations - tendency to repeat wrong solutions
- Mental set - approaching all problems the same
- Belief Bias - favor info that confirms assumptions
- Believe Perseverance - stick with decision, even when proven wrong
- Availability Bias - make decisions base on whats easiest
- Functional Fixedness - inability to see new uses for familiar objects

==Language==

defined as a set of symbols used to represent objects according to a set of rules
Semantics - study of the meaning of language
- Phonemes - smallest distinguishable sounds
- Morphemes - smallest meaningful units of language
- Grammar and syntax - rules that governs how words from phrases and sentences

Development

babies all go through the same stages of language development. Children not exposed to formal language will make one up

-crying

-bablbing

-Holophrases ( one word sentences )

-Complex phrases

Ambiguity - words or phrases that can have more than one meaning or be understood more than one way

Theories of language development

learning theory - behavorist model
Nativist theory - Noam Chomsky - children are born with a “universal grammar” of pre-programmed set of rules for language
Interactionist Theory - learn through interplay between innate capacity and environmental influence

Intelligence

what is intelligence

a measure of general mental ability
Ability to gather knowledge
Capacity for abstract reasoning and problem solving
Understand and Deal with people, objects, and symbols

Theories of intelligence

Alfred Binet - Development the first IQ test (intelligence quotient) as a way to measure intelligence
- Ratio of mental age to chronological age times 100
- Actual age 6, but mental ag 7 (7/6x100 = 117)
David Weschler - felt that Binet’s test over emphasized verbal skills so created the Weschler Intelligence Scale for children (WISC)
Raymond Cattell - theorized 2 subtypes
fluid intelligence - reasoning, memory, spatial ability, and mental speed
Crystallized intelligence - verbal skills, mathematical skills, ability to use information to solve problems.
Howard Gardner - proposed that instead of just one single intelligence there are actually eight area of intelligence

Logical - mathematical intelligence (scientist and mathematicians)
Visual - Spatial intelligence (architects and sculptors )
Verbal - Linguistic Intelligence (writers, teachers, attorneys)
Musical intelligence - developed sensitivity to tone rhythm (musicians and composers)
Bodily - kinesthetic intelligence (gymnasts, athletes,, craftspeople)
Interpersonal intelligence (counselors, politicians, pastors)
Intrapersonal intelligence - self smart ability to respond to own moods, emotions, and attitudes
Naturalistic Intelligence - understanding of nature, plants and animals
Possible 9th- Existential intelligence - sensitivity to issues of death, philosophy, and religions