Biochemistry

• Plants contain primary and secondary metabolites

  • Primary metabolites are universal

    • Amino acids, carbohydrates, etc.

  • Secondary (AKA specialized) metabolites are restricted to only certain species

Secondary Metabolites

• The secondary metabolites that give plants their characteristic flavor or aroma

• Not necessary for the plant’s critical functions

• Phenolics: give characteristic tastes of most the spices

  • A benzene ring with a hydroxyl group

• Terpenoids: (essential oils) found in herbs

  • Mostly lipids

  • May exist to attract pollinators

Spices

• Spices are often derived from aromatic fruits, flowers, bark, or other plant parts, often dried or powdered.

Spice Islands

Maluku or Moluccas

• Located in East Indonesia

• Maluku or Moluccas are where cloves, nutmeg, and mace are native

• Arab merchants arrived as early as the 14th century, followed by the Portuguese in the early 16th century, and followed by the Dutch.

• Wars were fought between the Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish, and British for possession of the regions.

Why Fight Over Spices?

• In historic times, and in some parts of the world where refrigeration is not available, spices can be used to preserve food or disguise the flavor of rotting food.

• Historically, they were very sought-after and expensive.

• Holland conquered the city of Malacca in 1641.

  • This conquest gave them control of the Malay Peninsula and nearby islands

  • In 1658, they gained control of the cinnamon trade in Ceylon

  • In 1663, they established exclusive trading rights in the pepper ports of the Malabar Coast of Western India.

  • By the end of the 17th century, more Indonesian Islands fell under Dutch control, giving Holland unchallenged rights to the Asian spice trade.

Zanzibar

• Zanzibar, located off the coast of Tanzania in Africa, is also referred to as a spice island.

• There are similar climates in the 2 sets of spice islands

Cinnamon

• Cinnamon is the bark of an evergreen tree in the Laurel family.

  • The bark is peeled off 2-year-old branches and the outer bark is scraped off so the inner bark curls up

  • If the “quill” (the curled stick) breaks it gets ground up

• Native to India and Sri Lanka grows best in tropical conditions

• Phenolic: Cinnamaldehyde

• 

Cloves

• Native to the Indonesian Spice Islands

• Cloves are the unopened bud of an evergreen tree in the Mrytle Family

• Phenolic

Nutmeg and Mace

• Originally came from the Indonesian Spice Islands, still cultivated there today

• derived from the same plant

  • Mace is the red seed covering (known as the aril)

  • Nutmeg is the seed itself

• Nutmeg is said to have hallucinogenic properties, but you have to eat enough to affect the nervous system, it would make you vomit

• Phenolic

Pepper (Piper Nigrum)

• Pepper is obtained from the dried berries

• Native to India and the East Indies it thrives in a hot, wet climate

• To get green pepper it is picked unripe.

• To get red pepper it is picked when ripe and is either dried or pickled

  • most pungent and aromatic

• To get black peppercorns it is picked right before ripening and dried

• To get white pepper, the berry is allowed to ripen, then is picked and peeled.

  • Slightly milder than black pepper

Ginger and Turmeric

• Ginger and Turmeric are both rhizomes (underground stems)

  • propagated vegetatively

• Phenolic

Ginger

• Ginger is from tropical Asia but is cultivated in many other places, especially Jamaica

• Can help control nausea associated with morning sickness and chemotherapy

Turmeric

• Turmeric is from the same family as ginger.

• It is bright yellow.

  • Can act as a natural dye

• Has similar uses in cooking as ginger.

• Thought to have medicinal properties.

  • Curcumin: active component of turmeric has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-bacterial properties.

Saffron

• Saffron is the most expensive spice in the world

• It is the stigma of the crocus flower

• Native to the Mediterranean regions

• Spain produces 70% of the world’s supply

• Can also act as a natural yellow dye

• Propagated by corms

Capsicum (Peppers)

• Capsicum (peppers) are native to the New World

• Includes chili peppers and paprika

• A member of the tomato/potato family (Solanaceae)

• Columbus misnamed it when he landed as he thought he had arrived in Asia

• These are fruits

Capsaicin

• Capsaicin: a compound present in hot pepper that can be used to treat chronic pain

  • it is put in an ointment and dulls the pain sensation

• These compounds are also present in bear (pepper) sprays which “reduces the ability to hear and see”

• Measure in Scoville Heat Units

• Phenolic

Vanilla

• A member of the orchid family

• Vanilla is native to Central America and Mexico and grown in humid tropical rainforests

• Flowers are pollinated by hand (if grown outside the native range)

• Pods are picked while still green

• Drying/curing is used to develop characteristic vanilla flavor

• Phenolic

Herbs

• Four different families give us most of our Herbs

• Herbs are normally fresh or dried leaves

Mint Family (Lamiaceae)

• The Mint Family includes:

  • mint

  • oregano

  • marjoram

  • basil

  • lavender

• All have aromatic oils (monoterpenoids) in their leaves

  • These act as a deterrent to herbivores

• Large doses of lavender have been linked to abnormal breast development in boys

  • Lavender is thought to be a endocrine disrupter

Parsley Family (Apiaceae or Umbelliferaceae)

• The Parsley Family includes:

  • parsley

  • cilantro

  • cumin

  • dill

  • caraway

• We used the leaves or seeds

Mustard Family (Brassicaceae)

• Ground-up seeds give us mustard

• In the same family, the ground-up root gives us horseradish and wasabi

• Have been shown to have antimicrobial properties

Onion Family (Alliaceae)

• The Onion Family includes: onions, shallots, and garlic

• Use underground bulb, but above-ground parts also have the same taste and smell

  • the flavor is due to the presence of various sulfur compounds

• Garlic is said to have antibiotic properties and also helps reduce blood clot formation

Secondary Metabolites can also be Pigments

Indigo

• Indigo is the oldest dye in history.

• Originally from the leaves of Indigofera tinctoria

• A natural blue dye

  • the original color of denim

  • Nowadays the dye is synthetic but for centuries the plant was sought-after

• It comes from India

History

• It was grown in the US by colonists and was associated with slavery.

• In the early 19th century, synthetic dyes were created and the cultivation of indigo in the US and other parts of the world was abandoned.