Memory Notes

Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, & Decision Making

  • Heuristics- mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often involve focusing on one aspect of a complex problem and ignoring others. These strategies do not guarantee accuracy, but they simplify decision-making and save time.

    • Two main types of heuristics:

      • Representativeness heuristic- a mental shortcut used when making judgments about the probability of an event under uncertainty. It operates under the belief that if something resembles (is representative) of a category, then it probably belongs in that category.

      • Availability heuristic- a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision.

  • Priming- a technique whereby exposure to one stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious guidance or intention.

    • Two main types of priming:

      • Repetition priming- occurs when you are exposed to a specific stimulus that makes it easier to recognize that same or similar stimulus later

      • Semantic priming- involves the influence of one word on the interpretation of another, related word

  • Parallel processing- the ability of the brain to process many aspects of a problem or stimulus simultaneously.

Intro to Memory

  • Memory- refers to information that persists over time, is acquired through various experiences, and can be stored and retrieved later

  • Explicit memory (declarative memory)- involves conscious recollection of factual information or personal experiences.

    • Two Types:

      • Episodic memory- Personal memories of specific events or experiences tied to a particular time and place.

      • Semantic memory- refers to our general knowledge about the world, including facts, concepts, and ideas that are not linked to specific personal experiences.

    • Uses the frontal lobe and hippocampus

  • Implicit memory- refers to the unconscious retention and retrieval of information without conscious awareness. It is formed through repeated experience and practice.

    • Uses the cerebellum and basal ganglia

    • Basal ganglia- a group of structures in the brain that are involved in coordinating movement as well as learning, memory, and emotion.

  • Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)- a persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity. This is thought to be a key mechanism behind learning and memory.

    • Tied to physical changes in the brain

    • Explains how repeated activation of certain neural pathways makes those connections stronger over time

Baddeley's Working Memory Model

  • Baddeley's Working Memory Model- a theoretical framework that explains how the working memory system functions. It consists of three components: the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the central executive.

    • Upgraded version of short term memory

  • Working memory- a cognitive system with limited capacity that can hold information temporarily while processing or manipulating it simultaneously.

  • The Dual Coding Theory- a cognitive theory that suggests that information is processed and represented in two distinct formats: visual and verbal. These two modes of representation are believed to work together, with each format contributing unique information processing capabilities.

  • Four main components:

    • Visuospatial sketchpad- temporarily holds and manipulates visual and spatial information. It allows individuals to visualize scenes, navigate through environments, and maintain information about spatial relationships while performing tasks. This mental workspace is essential for various cognitive processes, such as problem-solving, memory recall, and attentional control.

    • Phonological loop- deals with verbal and auditory information. It plays a crucial role in the temporary storage and manipulation of spoken and written language, consisting of two parts: the phonological store, which holds the information, and the articulatory rehearsal process, which allows for the repetition of that information to keep it in memory. This system is essential for tasks involving language comprehension, learning, and communication.

      • Broken down into two components:

        • phonological store (inner ear)- temporarily holds verbal and auditory information for a short period. This store is essential for language processing, as it allows individuals to retain sounds long enough to use them in cognitive tasks such as comprehension and repetition. It is particularly important in tasks involving phonological awareness, which underpins reading and language acquisition.

        • articulatory rehearsal- allows individuals to maintain and manipulate verbal information through silent speech or subvocalization. This process is essential for tasks involving language, as it helps keep information accessible in the phonological loop, a component of Baddeley's model of working memory. By repeating sounds or words in one's mind, individuals can enhance retention and retrieval of verbal material.

    • Central executive- oversees and coordinates cognitive processes, allowing for the manipulation of information and the management of attention. It acts as a control system that directs the flow of information between different subsystems, such as the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad, while also managing tasks like decision-making and problem-solving.

    • Episodic buffer- integrates information from different sources, such as visual and auditory data, into a single, coherent episode or experience. It acts as a temporary storage system that allows for the manipulation and retrieval of this integrated information, playing a crucial role in the overall functioning of working memory and facilitating attentional control and executive functions.

Multi-Store Model

  • Multi-store model of memory is an early theory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin that suggests our memories are processed through three distinct storage systems - sensory memory, short-term/working memory, and long-term memory.

  • Sensory Memory- the brief and temporary storage of sensory information in our memory system. They help us perceive the world around us by holding onto sensory stimuli for a very short time (less than a second).

    • Iconic memory- specifically stores visual information for a fraction of a second before it fades away.

    • Echoic memory- temporarily holds auditory information, such as sounds or words, for a few seconds before they disappear. Lasts 1-4 seconds

    • Automatic Processing- refers to the unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information.

      • We use rehersal strategies to keep it active

      • Maintenance rehearsal- process of repeatedly thinking about or saying information to keep it in short-term memory.

      • Elaborative rehearsal- involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered, as opposed to simply repeating the word to yourself over and over.

  • Short-Term Memory (STM)- part of the memory system where information is stored for roughly 20 seconds. It can hold about 7 items at a time.

  • STM gets encoded to long term memory and when it is sucessful, it can be retrived later

    • Requires effortful processing

    • Effortful processing- refers to learning or storing (encoding) that requires attention and conscious effort. Using strategies like nnemonic devices or chunking

      • Mnemonic device- a technique used to enhance memory and recall. It often involves creating associations between hard-to-remember information and easy-to-remember information.

        • Pegword System- involves linking words with numbers. It works by pre-memorizing a list of words that are easy to associate with the numbers they represent (one-bun, two-shoe etc.), then visualizing these items interacting with the material to be remembered.

        • Method of Loci- a mnemonic technique used to improve memory and recall by associating information to be remembered with specific locations or 'mental spaces'. This cognitive strategy leverages the brain's natural ability to remember spatial information and visual cues to encode and retrieve information more effectively.

        • Acronyms

        • Acrostic (sentence mnemonic)

        • Rhyme & Songs

        • Imagery and Visualization

        • Creating connections/ associations with prior knowledge/experience

      • Chunking- a strategy used in cognitive psychology to improve memory where large amounts of information are broken down into smaller, manageable groups or 'chunks'.

      • Hierarchies (Memory)- Organizing information into broad categories that are further subdivided into narrower concepts and facts. Think of it like an outline. When we organize information this way, it's easier to retrieve.

      • The Semantic Network Theory- a psychological model that suggests concepts are stored in our minds as nodes, connected by links that represent the relationships between these concepts.

    • Encoding- process of transforming information into a form that can be stored and retrieved by the brain

  • Long-Term Memory- refers to the storage of information over extended periods of time. It has virtually unlimited capacity and duration.

  • Retrieval- refers to the act of accessing or recalling previously stored information from long-term memory. It involves bringing stored memories back into conscious awareness for use in cognitive tasks such as remembering facts or events.

    • Depends on cues like the context you learned, emotional state, and related association

Levels of Processing Model

  • The Levels of Processing Theory suggests that the depth of processing applied to information during encoding determines its likelihood of being stored in long-term memory. It emphasizes that deeper, more meaningful processing leads to better memory retention. Memory can be encoded on three different levels from shallowest to deepest

  • Structural Encoding- The most shallow form of encoding. Occurs when you only pay attention to what something looks like.

  • Phonemic encoding- A little deeper level of encoding that is based on sound, such as how a word is pronounced.

  • Semantic encoding- involves processing an experience or fact based on its meaning rather than its details. In other words, it’s about understanding how things relate or make sense together. Deepest level of encoding.

Encoding Memories

  • Visual Encoding- when encoding is based on how something looks

  • Acoustic encoding- when encoding is based on how something sounds

  • Tactile Encoding- when encoding is based on the feeling of touch

  • Distributed Practice- where you spread out your study sessions over time, instead of trying to cram everything at once

    • Practices out the forgetting curve

  • Spacing effect- a psychological phenomenon where learning is greater when studying is spread out over time, as opposed to studying the same amount of content in a single session.

  • Massed Practice- refers to cramming or intense studying done within a short period without any significant breaks. It involves concentrated practice sessions, often in one sitting.

  • Novelty Effect- new things tend to be memorable

  • Mood Congruent Memory- the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood.

  • State-Dependent Memory- refers to the improved recall of information when you are in the same physiological or psychological "state" as when you encoded the information.

    • Note: This is about the internal state of your body and mind, which can include your mood, but also your level of alertness or even the effects of substances.

  • Context-Dependent Memory- enhanced recall of information when you are in the same external environment or context as when you learned it.

  • Self-Reference Effect- the tendency to remember information better when we relate it to ourselves.

  • Flashbulb Memory- clear, vivid, and emotionally significant memory of an important event. These memories are often tied to a powerful, surprising, or consequential public event. People often feel they can remember exactly where they were, what they were doing, and even what they were wearing.

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

  • Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve is a graph that represents how memory decreases over time when there is no attempt to retain or retrieve the information. It shows that we tend to forget rapidly at first, and then the rate of forgetting slows down.

  • Overlearning- the practice of continuing to study and learn material even after it has been initially mastered.

  • Savings Score- measures memory retention by calculating the time or effort saved when you relearn something compared to learning it the first time

  • Experiment:

    • Created thousands of nonsense syllables

    • Memorized them until he reached perfect recall

    • Tested himself after delays: minutes, hours, days

    • Measured how much time it took to relearn the list

    • Calculated “savings,” meaning how much faster he relearned information over time

The Serial Position Effect

  • The serial position effect refers to our tendency to be able to recall the first and last items in a list better than those in the middle.

  • Primacy Effect- another cognitive bias that results in better recall for items at the beginning of a list or sequence.

  • Recency effect- a cognitive bias that results in better recall of information presented at the end of a list or sequence.

Storing Memories

  • Memory Consolidation- the process by which short-term memories are transformed into long-term memories during sleep or rest periods.

  • Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM)- a fascinating capacity of the brain to store and recall personal experience. Individuals with this ability can have enhacned recall of dates, weather, news events or personal experiences.

  • Amnesia- The temporary or permanent loss of memory

    • Anterograde amnesia- a condition where an individual's ability to form new memories following an event that caused the amnesia is impaired or lost, while their memory for past events may remain intact.

    • Retrograde amnesia- a type of memory loss where individuals are unable to recall events that occurred before the onset of amnesia.

    • Source Amnesia- refers to an individual's inability to remember how, when, or where knowledge was acquired while retaining factual knowledge itself.

    • Infantile amnesia- the inability of adults to retrieve episodic memories before the age of 2–4 years, as well as the period before age 10 of which adults retain fewer memories than might otherwise be expected given the passage of time.

  • The misinformation effect- refers to false memories we create due to misinformation we receive after an event has occurred.

  • Source misattribution- refers to mistakenly attributing a memory or information to the wrong source, often leading to confusion between personal experiences and events that were actually experienced by someone else. It occurs when individuals cannot accurately recall where they encountered certain information or memories.

  • Parallel processing- the ability of the brain to process many aspects of a problem or stimulus simultaneously.

  • Serial processing- involves processing one piece of information at a time in a sequence.

  • Déjà Vu- the eerie feeling of having experienced a new situation before. While its exact cause is not fully understood, one psychological explanation is that it's related to source amnesia—when we correctly recall information but can't remember the source of the information. Another theory is that it's a brief, momentary disruption in the brain's processing, where our perception and memory retrieval get slightly out of sync.

Karl Lashley

  • Memories are brain-based, but the brain distributes the components of a memory across a network of locations

  • Searched for the engram (the physical basis of memory) failed to find a single location, leading him to propose that memories are distributed across the cortex, not localized. His experiments with rats showed memory loss depended more on the amount of cortex destroyed (mass action) than its specific location, and that different areas could sometimes compensate (equipotentiality).

Motivated forgetting- the process of deliberately or unintentionally forgetting unwanted or unpleasant memories, often as a defense mechanism

Which measure of memory provides the fewest retrieval cues: recall

            

Which measure of memory did Hermann Ebbinghaus use to assess the impact of rehearsal on retention: relearning

The effortful processing of information: can become automatic through practice.

Research indicates that: false memories often feel as real as true memories.

Sperling’s Iconic Memory and Related Experiments

            Goal: Demonstrate the existence and capacity of iconic memory and its rapid decay.

            Core setup (Iconic memory experiment):

  •             1) A matrix of letters is displayed for rac{1}{20} ext{ s}.

    •     2) The screen goes blank.

      3) A tone (high/medium/low) signals which row to report.

         4) The subject reports the letters in the indicated row; recall is nearly perfect with cue but not when reporting all letters from the whole array.

  • Key finding: Participants can see and recall the entire array momentarily, but the trace decays rapidly unless cued.

  • Supporting observation: When the row is cued by tone, recall can be almost perfect, indicating a large, though very short-lived, memory store.

  • Additional detail: The duration of iconic memory can vary but is generally up to about one second when cues are used; without cueing, the entire display is hard to report due to rapid decay.

  • Additional sample content from the experiment shows letters presented (e.g., sequences like G, V, U, L, S, J, N, A, Z, A, M, K, X, F, Q, O, U, N) to illustrate capacity and quick fading.

  • Takeaway: Iconic memory acts as a brief visual snapshot that preserves information briefly for potential transfer to working memory via attention and cueing.