Memory Notes
Mood Congruent Memory- the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood.
Ex: If you're in a sad mood, you're more likely to recall other sad or negative events from your past.
State-Dependent Memory- refers to the improved recall of information when you are in the same physiological or psychological "state" as when you encoded the information.
Ex: if you study while under the influence of caffeine, you might be better at recalling that information later if you are also caffeinated.
Note: This is about the internal state of your body and mind, which can include your mood, but also your level of alertness or even the effects of substances.
Context-Dependent Memory- enhanced recall of information when you are in the same external environment or context as when you learned it.
Ex: A classic example is a student who studies for an exam in the same classroom where they will take the test. The sights, sounds, and even smells of the classroom can act as retrieval cues, making it easier to access the information.
Self-Reference Effect- the tendency to remember information better when we relate it to ourselves.
Ex: if you are learning a list of vocabulary words and you can think of a personal story or connection for each word, you are much more likely to remember them than if you simply try to memorize them by rote.
Hierarchies (Memory)- Organizing information into broad categories that are further subdivided into narrower concepts and facts. Think of it like an outline. When we organize information this way, it's easier to retrieve.
Ex: When learning about the nervous system, you might start with the two main divisions (central and peripheral), then break those down into their sub-components, and so on.
Parallel processing- the ability of the brain to process many aspects of a problem or stimulus simultaneously.
Ex: Think about walking down a street: you are simultaneously processing the sights of cars and people, the sounds of traffic, and the feeling of the ground beneath your feet. Our brain is incredibly efficient at this.
Serial processing- involves processing one piece of information at a time in a sequence.
Note: This is what we typically use when solving a complex math problem or trying to recall a list of items in a specific order.
Déjà Vu- the eerie feeling of having experienced a new situation before. While its exact cause is not fully understood, one psychological explanation is that it's related to source amnesia—when we correctly recall information but can't remember the source of the information. Another theory is that it's a brief, momentary disruption in the brain's processing, where our perception and memory retrieval get slightly out of sync.
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)- long-lasting increase in the strength of synaptic connections. It's the biological basis for learning and memory.
Flashbulb Memory- clear, vivid, and emotionally significant memory of an important event. These memories are often tied to a powerful, surprising, or consequential public event. People often feel they can remember exactly where they were, what they were doing, and even what they were wearing.
Ex: Examples include remembering where you were during a major world event. However, research has shown that while these memories feel very accurate and detailed, they can still be prone to reconstruction and are not as perfect as we might think.
Retrieval- The process of getting information out of memory
Motivated forgetting- the process of deliberately or unintentionally forgetting unwanted or unpleasant memories, often as a defense mechanism
The cerebellum is involved in which type of memory: implicit
The spacing effect- a learning principle where you remember information better if you space out your study sessions over time rather than cramming them into one long session
Automatic processing- a fast, unintentional, and effortless way the brain processes information and performs tasks without conscious attention or deliberate effort
Effortful processing- the encoding of information into memory that requires conscious attention, focus, and deliberate effort
Semantic encoding- the process of converting new information into a meaningful form that can be stored and retrieved from memory
Automatic processing and effortful processing are both types of: encoding
Iconic memory- a very brief type of sensory memory that acts as a fleeting, high-capacity visual "photograph" of the world, holding sensory information for a fraction of a second (around 250-500 milliseconds) before it decays or is transferred to short-term memory through attention
echoic memory- the brain's temporary storage for auditory information, allowing you to perceive and process sounds that have already stopped
Encoding- The process of getting information into memory
mnemonic device- a memory aid
Note: Mnemonic devices such as method of loci make effective use of visual imagery
Which measure of memory provides the fewest retrieval cues: recall
visual imagery- a form of mental imagery that creates subjective, "picture-like" experiences in the mind without external stimuli, allowing people to "see" absent items or events
Which measure of memory did Hermann Ebbinghaus use to assess the impact of rehearsal on retention: relearning
The effortful processing of information: can become automatic through practice.
retroactive interference- a memory phenomenon where newly learned information impairs the recall of previously learned, older information
proactive interference- a type of memory interference where old memories disrupt the ability to recall new information
source amnesia- a cognitive phenomenon where a person is unable to recall the source of a piece of information or event. This means they can remember the content itself, but not where or from whom they acquired it.
Research indicates that: false memories often feel as real as true memories.
The misinformation effect- the phenomenon where misleading information introduced after an event can distort a person's memory of that event
Retrograde amnesia- a memory loss condition where a person cannot recall events, information, or experiences that happened before the onset of the condition
working memory- the brain's temporary workspace for holding and manipulating information, crucial for complex tasks like learning, problem-solving, decision-making, and reasoning.
Our immediate, short-term memory for new material is limited to roughly 7 bits of information
the primacy effect- a cognitive bias where people tend to remember information presented at the beginning of a list or series better than information presented later on
chunking- the cognitive process of grouping separate pieces of information into larger, more meaningful units to make them easier to remember and process
episodic memory- Memory for the events of your life
priming- a phenomenon where exposure to a stimulus (the prime) influences an individual's subsequent responses or behaviors, often without conscious awareness of the prime's effect
Ex: seeing the word "yellow" makes the word "banana" come to mind faster because they are semantically linked in memory
anterograde amnesia- a condition where a person loses the ability to form new memories after the onset of the disorder, making it difficult or impossible to learn new information and retain it in the long-term
maintenance rehearsal- the process of repeatedly saying or thinking about information to keep it active in short-term memory
Shallow Processing- Processing only superficial characteristics of information
deep processing- a cognitive process where information is actively engaged with and elaborately processed, leading to better memory retention and understanding
Sperling’s Iconic Memory and Related Experiments
Goal: Demonstrate the existence and capacity of iconic memory and its rapid decay.
Core setup (Iconic memory experiment):
1) A matrix of letters is displayed for rac{1}{20} ext{ s}.
2) The screen goes blank.
3) A tone (high/medium/low) signals which row to report.
4) The subject reports the letters in the indicated row; recall is nearly perfect with cue but not when reporting all letters from the whole array.
Key finding: Participants can see and recall the entire array momentarily, but the trace decays rapidly unless cued.
Supporting observation: When the row is cued by tone, recall can be almost perfect, indicating a large, though very short-lived, memory store.
Additional detail: The duration of iconic memory can vary but is generally up to about one second when cues are used; without cueing, the entire display is hard to report due to rapid decay.
Additional sample content from the experiment shows letters presented (e.g., sequences like G, V, U, L, S, J, N, A, Z, A, M, K, X, F, Q, O, U, N) to illustrate capacity and quick fading.
Takeaway: Iconic memory acts as a brief visual snapshot that preserves information briefly for potential transfer to working memory via attention and cueing.
Baddeley’s Working Memory Model (1992)
Core idea: Three interacting components keep information in working memory and manage its processing.
Components:
Visuospatial Sketch Pad: holds visual and spatial information (e.g., mental imagery, spatial navigation).
Phonological Loop: holds verbal information (phono/ auditory coding) and data for subvocal rehearsal.
Central Executive: coordinates all activities of working memory; it controls attention, retrieves information from sensory and long-term memory, and integrates information from the two slave systems.
Diagrammatic description (verbal): Central Executive
communicates with Visuospatial Sketch Pad and Phonological Loop; also interfaces with Long-Term Memory during encoding/retrieval.
Function in context: The central executive allocates attention and resources to maintain, manipulate, and transfer information among WM components, sensory memory, and long-term memory.
Ebbinghaus Experiment
Key idea
Repetition can boost memory; more time spent learning yields better retention (Savings effect)
Experimental design (Day 1 vs Day 2)
Day 1: memorized lists of nonsense syllables (e.g., BAF, HAB, JUV, VEZ, etc.)
Varied the number of repetitions on Day 1
Day 2: measured relearning time for the same list
Savings concept
The degree to which relearning is faster than initial learning reflects memory savings
Formal idea: Savings score indicates retention
Ebbinghaus Results (Relating Relearning Time to Repetitions)
Observations
Time in minutes taken to relearn the list on Day 2 decreases as the number of repetitions on Day 1 increases
More initial repetitions lead to faster relearning (greater savings)
Quantitative relation (conceptual)
Savings score can be expressed as a difference in learning times: S = T1 - T2
where $T1$ is the time to learn on Day 1 and $T2$ is the time to relearn on Day 2
A larger $S$ indicates greater savings and better retention
Practical takeaway
Spacing and repetition strengthen encoding and reduce later relearning effort