Scandals and Their Mediations Theorizing the Case of Japan

This article explores the role of Japanese media in investigating, uncovering, and mediating scandals, emphasizing how scandal mediation reflects Japan's mediascape, journalistic norms, and societal values. The author highlights the critical role of non-elite, semi-mainstream tabloids (shūkanshi) in initiating scandals, as mainstream media often avoid or delay reporting on sensitive issues. The article proposes a structural model for the scandal mediation process, consisting of four stages: transgression leaks to media, scandal processing, transgression leaks to the public, and the climax.

Key Points

1. Media's Role in Scandals

• Media play a dual role: they can support the establishment or challenge it by exposing corruption and social transgressions (watchdog theory).

• However, media often fail to live up to the ideal of a "social guardian" due to interlocking mechanisms, informal contracts, and power dynamics that shape scandal mediation.

• Scandals are shaped by news values, media's self-understanding of their social role, and market forces.

2. Definition and Approach to Scandals

• A scandal involves the public revelation of a private breach of law or norms, leading to social disapproval, debate, and reputational damage.

• Scandals are culturally specific: what is considered scandalous in one culture may not be in another.

• Scandals are mediated events with a narrative structure (beginning, middle, end) and are often driven by emotion-arousing stories that attract public attention.

3. Japanese Mediascape and Scandal Mediation

• Japan's media landscape is dominated by mainstream media (dailies, TV broadcasters) and non-mainstream media (weeklies, tabloids, foreign press).

• The kisha club system (reporters' clubs) restricts investigative journalism, as journalists rely on access to political sources and face sanctions for breaking in-group norms.

• Mainstream media often ignore or delay reporting on scandals, while tabloids (shūkanshi) play a crucial role in exposing transgressions.

4. Scandal Mediation Process

The author outlines a four-stage model for scandal mediation in Japan:

1. Transgression Leak to Media:

   • Scandals begin with a leak of information, often from insiders, whistleblowers, or anonymous sources.

   • The leak must allege a breach of norms and be personalized to attract media attention.

2. Scandal Processing:

   • Media and prosecutors process the scandal on two levels: symbolic/mediated (public discussion) and repressive/legal (criminal investigation).

   • Mainstream media often ignore scandals initially, while tabloids take the lead in investigating and exposing the transgression.

3. Transgression Leak to Public:

   • Tabloids deepen their investigation, speculating about the "truth" and updating the public with new twists.

   • Mainstream media eventually cover the scandal, often under pressure from foreign media, public backlash, or legal action.

4. Climax: Apology and Damage:

   • Scandals culminate in public apologies (shazai kaiken), where transgressors demonstrate regret and resign.

   • Media focus on the ritualistic aspects of apologies (e.g., frequency of bows, tears, gestures) and judge their adequacy.

   • Transgressors are often sent into temporary exile from public life, with their return contingent on public forgiveness.

5. Role of Tabloids (Shūkanshi)

• Tabloids are the primary instigators of scandals in Japan, as they are not bound by the restrictive kisha club system.

• They often engage in speculative journalism and expose scandals that mainstream media avoid.

• However, tabloids are also criticized for lacking editorial ethics and publishing unverified or false information, leading to lawsuits.

6. Cultural and Structural Factors

• Japanese culture emphasizes harmony (wa), respect for authority, and avoidance of shame, which influences how scandals are mediated.

• The kisha club system and corporate/political influence limit the media's ability to act as a true watchdog.

• Scandals are often non-transformative: they create temporary public outrage but fail to address systemic issues or bring about meaningful reform.

7. Examples of Scandals

• The article provides several examples of scandals initiated by tabloids and later picked up by mainstream media, including:

  • Lockheed Scandal (1976): PM Tanaka Kakuei accepted bribes from Lockheed Corporation.

  • Recruit Scandal (1988): Politicians and bureaucrats received shares from Recruit Company in exchange for favors.

  • Sagawa Kyūbin Scandal (1992): A trucking company bribed over 100 politicians.

  • Amari Akira Scandal (2016): A minister accepted bribes from a construction company.

8. Media as "Muzzled Watchdog"

• Japanese mainstream media are described as a "muzzled watchdog": they have access to information but limited ability to publicize it due to political and corporate pressures.

• Tabloids, on the other hand, act as "tricksters", seeking scandals to sell copies but often lacking ethical rigor.

Conclusion

The article concludes that Japanese media, particularly mainstream outlets, often fail to fulfill their role as a democracy watchdog due to cultural norms, legal constraints, and power dynamics. While tabloids play a crucial role in exposing scandals, their lack of editorial ethics undermines their credibility. Scandals in Japan are often non-transformative, creating temporary public outrage but failing to address systemic corruption or bring about meaningful reform. The author suggests that the media's role in scandal mediation reflects broader issues of power, control, and accountability in Japanese society.

Key Takeaways

• Japanese scandals are shaped by a complex interplay of media practices, cultural norms, and power dynamics.

• Tabloids (shūkanshi) are the primary instigators of scandals, while mainstream media often delay or avoid reporting on sensitive issues.

• Scandals are often ritualistic and non-transformative, creating temporary outrage but failing to address systemic issues.

• The media's role in scandal mediation highlights the challenges of balancing public interest, corporate/political influence, and cultural values in Japan.

Examples of Scandals

1. Minamata Case (1956–)

• Issue: The Chisso Corporation's chemical factory leaked methyl mercury, causing severe mercury poisoning in Minamata City, Kumamoto Prefecture.

• Media Role: The Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry obstructed the investigation. The scandal gained significant attention only after foreign photojournalist W. Eugene Smith exposed it in the early 1970s.

• Outcome: The case became a symbol of industrial pollution and corporate negligence in Japan.

2. Black Mist Case (1969–1971)

• Issue: A series of game-fixing and bribery scandals in the Japanese professional baseball league.

• Media Role: The scandal was first exposed by the Shūkan Post magazine and later broadcast on FUJI TV.

• Outcome: The scandal led to public outrage and reforms in the baseball league.

3. Kakuei Tanaka Case (1974)

• Issue: Former Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka was involved in dubious land deals and corruption.

• Media Role: Investigative reporters Takashi Tachibana and Takaya Kodama exposed the scandal in Bungei Shunjū, prompting mainstream media to cover the story.

• Outcome: Tanaka was forced to resign, and the scandal tarnished his political legacy.

4. Lockheed Scandal (1976)

• Issue: PM Kakuei Tanaka accepted bribes from Lockheed Corporation in exchange for influencing All Nippon Airways to purchase Lockheed's Tristar aircraft.

• Media Role: The scandal was first revealed by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission and published in the Los Angeles Times. Japanese mainstream media only covered it after the foreign press broke the story.

• Outcome: Tanaka was arrested and charged, marking one of Japan's most significant political scandals.

5. Miura Case (1981–1984)

• Issue: Businessman Kazuyoshi Miura was accused of orchestrating the murder of his wife during a trip to the U.S.

• Media Role: The scandal was first reported by Shūkan Bunshun, which suggested Miura's involvement in the killing.

• Outcome: Miura was eventually arrested and convicted, though the case remains controversial.

6. "Sugar Cane" Case (1987)

• Issue: The governor of Kyoto Prefecture made an inappropriate statement about typhoon damage to sugar cane fields in Okinawa.

• Media Role: The incident was ignored by mainstream media but reported by local newspapers in Okinawa and Hokkaido. The governor later apologized, and the story became national news.

• Outcome: The case highlighted the role of local media in holding public officials accountable.

7. Recruit Scandal (1988–1989)

• Issue: PM Noboru Takeshita and other politicians received shares from the Recruit Company in exchange for political favors.

• Media Role: The scandal was initially exposed by the Kawasaki local branch of Asahi Shimbun and later by the communist newspaper Akahata. Mainstream media only covered it after the tabloids broke the story.

• Outcome: Takeshita and several other politicians resigned, and the scandal led to public distrust of the political system.

8. Sōsuke Uno Case (1989)

• Issue: PM Sōsuke Uno had an extramarital affair with a geisha, who contacted Mainichi Shimbun to expose the story.

• Media Role: The story was briefly mentioned in Sunday Mainichi (a sister magazine of Mainichi Shimbun) and later reprinted by the Washington Post. Mainstream media only covered it after foreign press attention.

• Outcome: Uno resigned, and the scandal brought attention to issues of gender and power in Japanese politics.

9. "Dogeza Hatsugen" Case (1990)

• Issue: LDP secretary general Ichirō Ozawa made an inappropriate statement about Japan's postwar relationship with South Korea.

• Media Role: Japanese media initially avoided naming Ozawa, but Korean media published the details. Asahi Shimbun eventually mentioned Ozawa but faced pressure from the kisha club.

• Outcome: The case highlighted the media's reluctance to criticize powerful politicians.

10. Sagawa Kyūbin Scandal (1992)

• Issue: The Sagawa Kyūbin trucking company bribed over 100 politicians in exchange for political favors.

• Media Role: The scandal was first exposed by Shūkan Shinchō, and mainstream media only covered it after the prosecutor's office issued arrest warrants.

• Outcome: Several high-profile politicians, including Ichirō Ozawa and Noboru Takeshita, resigned.

11. Masako Owada Case I (1993)

• Issue: The engagement of Princess Masako to Crown Prince Naruhito was kept secret by the Imperial Household Agency.

• Media Role: The story was leaked by Reuters and Associated Press, prompting Japanese media to cover it.

• Outcome: The case highlighted the control of information by the Imperial Household Agency.

12. Toa Ilbo Case (1995)

• Issue: A Korean newspaper received an anonymous document confirming inappropriate statements about Japan's historical relationship with Korea made by a Japanese official.

• Media Role: Asahi Shimbun initially avoided the story, but Mainichi Shimbun and Tokyo Shimbun eventually published it. Both papers were barred from kisha club activities for a month.

• Outcome: The case underscored the media's vulnerability to political pressure.

13. Tochigi Ijime Case (1999)

• Issue: A teenager in Tochigi Prefecture was bullied to death, but media initially misreported the incident based on incorrect police reports.

• Media Role: The real story was investigated and published by Shūkan Hōseki, FOCUS, and the local branch of Sankei Shimbun.

• Outcome: The case exposed flaws in media reporting and police investigations.

14. Masako Owada Case II (2004)

• Issue: Princess Masako was diagnosed with a mental disorder, but the story was initially suppressed.

• Media Role: The story was first reported by Richard Lloyd Parry of The Times (London), prompting Japanese media to cover it.

• Outcome: The case brought attention to the pressures faced by the royal family.

15. Amari Akira Scandal (2016)

• Issue: Minister of State for Economic Revitalization Amari Akira accepted bribes from a construction company.

• Media Role: The scandal was first exposed by Shūkan Bunshun, leading to Amari's resignation.

• Outcome: The case highlighted the role of tabloids in exposing political corruption.

Key Takeaways from the Examples

• Tabloids (shūkanshi) often initiate scandals, while mainstream media delay or avoid coverage due to political and corporate pressures.

• Many scandals gain traction only after being exposed by foreign media or local newspapers.

• The kisha club system and cultural norms often hinder investigative journalism, allowing scandals to remain hidden until external forces intervene.

• Scandals in Japan are often ritualistic, culminating in public apologies and resignations, but they rarely lead to systemic reform.

These examples illustrate the complex dynamics of scandal mediation in Japan, highlighting the media's role as both a watchdog and a muzzled guardian of public interest.