Indigenous Americans and Europeans Setttlers.
European Exploration – Study Notes
1. Columbus and the “Discovery” of the Americas
In 1492, Christopher Columbus sailed west from Spain.
Goal: Find a direct route to Asia by crossing the Atlantic.
Result: Reached lands unknown to Europeans, which changed world history.
2. Why Europeans Wanted New Trade Routes
For centuries, Arab traders brought goods like silk and spices from Asia to Europe.
These goods were sold mainly in Venice, making it a major trade center.
In 1453, the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, disrupting traditional trade routes.
European nations looked for new, safer, and cheaper routes to Asia that avoided Muslim-controlled lands.
3. Portugal Leads the Way
Portugal was the first European country to actively search for new routes to Asia.
By the 15th century, Portugal established several trading ports along Africa’s west coast.
4. What Portugal Traded
Portugal traded:
Wine
Guns
Horses
In exchange, they received:
African slaves
Gold
5. Slavery and Sugar Plantations
African slaves were sent to work on sugar plantations on:
The Canary Islands
The Cape Verde Islands
These islands were colonized by Portugal and Spain.
Sugar from these plantations was shipped and sold in European markets, becoming a highly profitable commodity.
New Maritime Technologies – Study Notes
1. Advancements in the Mid-1400s
The 15th century saw major improvements in maritime technology.
These developments allowed Europeans to travel farther, faster, and more safely.
2. The Caravel
Invented by Portuguese mariners.
A light, fast, and highly maneuverable ship.
Could sail against the wind (windward) because of its special sails (lateen sails).
This was crucial: older ships could not sail well along Africa’s southern coast due to northerly winds and southward ocean currents.
Enabled explorers to finally travel around Africa.
3. Discovery of the Azores (1420)
In 1420, Portuguese sailors discovered and claimed the Azores, located west of Portugal.
These islands became an important stopover.
With the caravel, explorers could return from Asia by sailing across northern Africa’s coast toward the Azores, improving navigation and safety.
4. Improved Navigational Tools
A. Better Maps
New maps helped sailors estimate distances more accurately.
B. Magnetic Compass
Helped sailors determine direction.
Allowed them to choose the best route depending on wind patterns.
C. Mariner’s Astrolabe
Used to find a ship’s latitude.
Worked by measuring the noon altitude of the sun (height of the sun in the sky).
5. Early Portuguese Explorers
These technologies were used by famous Portuguese explorers:
Bartholomeu Dias – first European to sail around the southern tip of Africa.
Vasco da Gama – first European to reach India by sea.
Both were supported by Prince Henry “the Navigator”, who promoted exploration and innovation.
ortuguese Exploration – Study Notes
1. Portugal Leads Early Exploration
Motivated by trade with Africa and Asia.
Among the first European nations to use new maritime technologies (caravels, compass, astrolabe).
Many Portuguese voyages occurred before Columbus.
Key Figures in Portuguese Exploration
Prince Henry “the Navigator” (1394–1460)
Founded the first navigation school in the 15th century.
Encouraged exploration along Africa’s southern coast using caravels.
Sponsored expeditions that:
Created accurate maps of the West African coast.
Assisted the expansion of the African slave trade in Europe.
Helped spread Christianity in Africa.
Sought a westward route to the Asian spice trade.
Bartholomeu Dias (1451–1500)
Sailed farther south than any previous European explorer.
In 1488, became the first European to round the Cape of Good Hope (southern tip of Africa).
Proved that a sea route from Europe to Asia was possible via the Atlantic → around Africa → Indian Ocean.
Vasco da Gama (1460–1524)
Built on Dias’s route under King Manuel I.
In 1497, sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and reached India.
Returned to Portugal in 1499 with spices and valuable goods.
His successful voyage encouraged other explorers to search for even easier or faster routes to Asia.
Christopher Columbus – Study Notes
1. Columbus’s Goal
Columbus, an Italian explorer, wanted to find a western sea route to Asia (then called the Indies).
Sought sponsorship to fund his voyage.
2. Spain’s Political Background
In 1469, Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile married, uniting Spain.
In 1492, they ended 800 years of Muslim Moor rule in Spain.
This period included times of coexistence, but also frequent conflict.
After their victory, they ordered the harsh expulsion of Muslims and Jews from Spain.
3. Columbus’s Search for Support
Columbus first asked Portugal to fund his idea.
Portugal rejected him because they had already found a route to Asia by sailing around Africa.
Spain (Ferdinand and Isabella) initially rejected him too.
4. Why Spain Eventually Supported Columbus
Spain wanted to compete with Portugal for Asian wealth.
Portugal dominated the African route, so Spain saw an advantage in looking westward instead.
After their military success in 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella felt more confident and ambitious.
5. Columbus’s Voyages and Misconceptions
Columbus did reach land west of Europe (the Caribbean), and attempted to set up a Spanish colony.
He never realized he had not reached Asia.
Though famous, the continents were not named after him; they were named after the explorer Amerigo Vespucci.
Conquering America – Study Notes
1. Columbus’s Complex Reputation
Columbus’s legacy has changed many times:
Seen as a hero, villain, skilled sailor, and failure (because he never reached Asia).
He accidentally began the European conquest of the Americas.
Historians debate whether he was:
A conqueror
An explorer
An accidental discoverer
2. Columbus’s Motives
Historical records show he was driven by:
Exploration
Conquering new lands
Acquiring wealth
Spreading Christianity by converting Indigenous peoples
3. First Voyage (1492)
August 3, 1492: Set sail from Palos, Spain on the Santa Maria.
Goal: find a western route to Asia (the Indies).
October 12, 1492: Landed in the Bahamas, naming the island San Salvador.
4. Columbus’s Misinterpretation
He believed he had reached the East Indies.
Called the local people “Indians”, a name that stuck historically.
5. Columbus’s Observations of Indigenous Peoples
He noted they:
Spoke a language he didn’t understand
Used body paint instead of European-style clothes
Used pointed sticks as weapons
He believed they were:
Docile
Easily convertible to Christianity
Could be used as servants
Columbus’s Continued Voyages – Study Notes
1. Arrival in Hispaniola (1492)
In December 1492, Columbus reached Hispaniola (modern Dominican Republic + Haiti).
He found gold on the island.
Still believed he was in Asia.
2. Return to Spain
Columbus chose to return to Spain with:
Gold
12 Indigenous people (taken as slaves)
He left 40 Spanish men behind on Hispaniola to establish a small settlement.
3. Reaction of Spain
King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella were pleased with the gold and enslaved people he brought.
As a result, they agreed to fund more voyages.
4. Second Voyage (1493)
Columbus returned to Hispaniola in 1493.
This expedition was much larger, showing Spain’s growing ambitions.
Included:
17 ships
1,200 men
Horses, cattle, and swine
These animals were not native to the Americas and were introduced by Europeans.
Columbus’s Later Voyages – Study Notes
1. Trouble in Hispaniola
When Columbus returned to Hispaniola, he discovered:
The 40 Spaniards he left had:
Destroyed the camp
Pillaged Indigenous villages
Raped Indigenous women
Columbus’s son wrote that the Spaniards committed “a thousand excesses” and were hated by the natives.
In retaliation, Indigenous people killed 10 Spaniards.
2. Columbus’s Response
Columbus was enraged.
He captured about 500 Indigenous people and sent them to Spain to be sold as slaves.
Then continued exploring around:
Hispaniola
Southern Cuba
3. Discovery of Dominica (1493)
November 3, 1493 (a Sunday): Columbus reached a new island.
He named it Dominica (Latin for Sunday).
Today: the Commonwealth of Dominica, southeast of Puerto Rico (not the Dominican Republic).
4. Third Voyage (1498–1500)
Columbus returned to Hispaniola in 1498.
He sailed south and explored:
Trinidad
The mainland of South America (modern Venezuela)
This was the first time Columbus reached the American mainland, though he still believed it was Asia.
Returned to Spain in 1500.
5. Fourth and Final Voyage (1502–1504)
Columbus’s last voyage was in 1502.
He explored parts of:
Mexico
Honduras
Panama
Santiago in Jamaica
Returned to Spain in 1504.
6. Columbus’s Death
Columbus died in 1506.
He never realized he had discovered a new continent.
He remained convinced he had reached Asia.
The Conquistadores – Study Notes
1. Who Were the Conquistadores?
Inspired by Columbus’s voyages.
Spanish explorers who sought to conquer the lands of the New World.
Famous conquistadores include:
Hernán Cortés
Francisco Pizarro
Francisco Vásquez de Coronado
The term “conquistador” means “conqueror” in Spanish.
Cortés’s Conquest of the Aztecs
1. Cortés’s Expedition (1519)
In 1519, Hernán Cortés left Cuba.
Reached the Mexican coast, landing on the Yucatán Peninsula in Mayan territory.
His forces included:
11 ships
508 men
13 horses
A few cannons
2. Meeting Gerónimo de Aguilar
Aguilar: a Spanish priest who survived a shipwreck.
Had lived with the Mayans and learned Mayan language.
Served as translator for Cortés.
3. Victory at Tabasco
Cortés defeated the Potonchan natives in Tabasco.
As a result, he received 20 enslaved women.
These women were later converted to Christianity.
4. La Malinche (Doña Marina)
One of the enslaved women given to Cortés.
Became:
His interpreter
His advisor
His mistress and the mother of his child
Knew both Mayan and Nahuatl (Aztec language).
Helped Cortés understand:
Indigenous cultures
Regional politics
Information about the Aztec Empire and its wealth
Cortés in Tenochtitlán – Study Notes
1. Arrival at Tenochtitlán (November 8, 1519)
Cortés reached the outskirts of Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital.
Located on an island in Lake Texcoco (present-day Mexico City).
One of the largest cities in the world at the time.
Larger than almost every European city except Constantinople.
Estimated population: 60,000–300,000 people.
2. Description of Tenochtitlán
A highly advanced and beautiful city:
Wide canals
Stone pyramids
Strong, impressive buildings
Its size and fortification meant it would be difficult to conquer.
3. Gaining Native Allies
As Cortés marched through Mexico, he:
Encountered Indigenous groups who hated Aztec rule.
Formed alliances with them.
These native allies played a major role in his success.
4. Entering Tenochtitlán
With the help of their Indigenous allies, the Spanish:
Entered the city without resistance.
Montezuma II, the Aztec emperor:
Welcomed them peacefully.
Gave them gifts of gold.
5. Greed and Betrayal
The gold intensified the Spaniards’ greed.
After settling in the city, Cortés:
Imprisoned Montezuma II
Ordered his men to seize all the gold they could find.
The Siege of the Spanish & La Noche Triste
1. Aztec Counterattack
After Cortés imprisoned Montezuma and seized gold, the Aztecs revolted.
They launched a full-scale siege on the Spanish inside Tenochtitlán.
Food and water became scarce for the Spaniards.
2. La Noche Triste (“The Sad Night”)
The Spanish attempted a nighttime escape from the city.
Outcome:
Hundreds of Spaniards were killed or captured.
Many drowned in the canals because they were weighed down with gold and silver they were trying to steal.
Cortés was devastated:
He collapsed in grief under a large ahuehuete tree in Tacuba, a tree that still stands today.
3. Smallpox Epidemic
Soon after, a smallpox epidemic struck the Aztecs.
The disease killed thousands, including many warriors.
Spaniards were less affected because they had immunity from long exposure in Europe.
This epidemic greatly weakened Aztec resistance.
4. Final Fall of Tenochtitlán (1521)
Taking advantage of the weakened Aztecs, Cortés returned.
In 1521, he captured Tenochtitlán again.
The city was destroyed, and the Spanish built Mexico City on its ruins.
📌 Francisco Pizarro – Key Notes
Who was Pizarro?
Spanish conquistador.
Explored the Pacific coast of the Americas.
📍 Timeline of Major Events
1532
Pizarro arrives at San Mateo Bay.
In November, he and his men reach Cajamarca (present-day Peru).
They ambush the Incas, kill thousands, and capture Emperor Atahuallpa.
Atahuallpa’s Ransom
Atahuallpa promises a huge room filled with gold (and silver) in exchange for freedom.
Pizarro accepts the ransom but then executes Atahuallpa anyway.
After the Ransom
Pizarro and his men loot and destroy Cuzco, the Inca capital.
1535
Pizarro founds Lima, which becomes the capital of Peru.
⚔ Key Concepts
1. Conquest Strategy
Surprise attack at Cajamarca.
Use of firearms, horses, and steel weapons gave the Spaniards a major advantage.
Pizarro took the emperor hostage to destabilize the empire.
2. Impact on the Incas
Loss of leadership after Atahuallpa’s capture.
Massive deaths in ambush.
Destruction and plundering of cities (especially Cuzco).
Establishment of Spanish colonial rule.
📚 Important Names and Places
Francisco Pizarro – Spanish conqueror of the Inca Empire.
Atahuallpa – Last Inca emperor, captured and executed.
Cajamarca – Location of the surprise attack.
Cuzco – Inca capital, later looted and destroyed.
Lima – City founded by Pizarro in 1535.
⭐ Why This Matters (Significance)
Marked the fall of the Inca Empire.
Led to Spanish control over Peru.
Shaped the cultural, political, and social structure of mo📌 Missionaries in the New World — Notes
Background
After the Spanish conquistadores conquered large parts of the Americas in the early 1500s, thousands of Spaniards migrated to the New World.
They established colonies, missions, and presidios (military forts).
📍 Where Were the Missions Located?
Spanish missionaries—mainly Jesuit and Franciscan priests—set up missions in:
Texas
New Mexico
California
Arizona
Florida
Most famous mission:
The Alamo Mission (San Antonio, Texas)
🎯 Purpose of the Missions
Convert Indigenous Peoples to Christianity
Missionaries aimed to spread the Catholic faith.
Extend Spanish Influence
Missions helped claim and secure territory for Spain.
Teach Spanish Language and Customs
Indigenous communities were taught European farming, crafts, and daily life.
🛐 Methods Used by Missionaries
Peaceful Methods
Some tribes accepted Christianity voluntarily.
Missions sometimes became centers of cooperation and cultural exchange.
Forced Methods
Many indigenous groups refused to abandon their traditional religions.
Resistance often led to:
Forced conversions
Punishment
Violence and conflict
Europeans imposed:
New laws
Cultural norms
Labor expectations
🌎 Impact on Indigenous Peoples
Religious change: Some converted; many resisted.
Cultural disruption: Traditional beliefs and practices were suppressed.
Population decline: Due to disease, forced labor, and violence.
Long-term influence: Spanish missions shaped the culture and architecture of many regions, especially California.
📌 The Encomienda System — Notes
1. Background
Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand of Spain:
Forbade outright slavery of Indigenous peoples.
Encouraged settlers to convert Indigenous peoples to Christianity.
Introduced the encomienda system in America (as early as 1503).
Legally ended in 1720.
2. How the System Worked
Spanish officers (encomenderos) were granted:
Land belonging to Indigenous peoples.
Responsibility over a certain number of native workers.
Native peoples were supposed to:
Work the land.
Follow Christian teachings from the Spanish officer.
In theory, the Indigenous people were to receive:
Payment for their labor.
Food, clothing, and necessities.
3. Reality and Abuses
The system often abused Indigenous workers:
Forced to work long hours, day and night.
Received little or no pay.
Provided barely enough food and clothing.
Consequences:
High mortality among Indigenous workers.
Significant decline in the native population.
4. Key Concepts
Encomendero – Spanish officer in charge of the land and workers.
Forced labor – Indigenous peoples were required to work under European control.
Christianization – Used as justification for the system.
📌 Po’pay’s Rebellion — Notes
1. Background
Time period: Late 1600s (seventeenth century).
Location: New Mexico, among the Pueblo tribes.
Cause: Spanish missionaries attempted to forcefully convert Native Americans to Christianity.
Missionaries:
Outlawed Pueblo religious ceremonies.
Forced Pueblos to pray to the Christian god.
Beaten or killed those who resisted.
2. Impact of Diseases
Diseases like smallpox and typhus were introduced by Spanish settlers.
Many Pueblo villages were wiped out, causing a rapid decline in population.
3. Pueblo Response
Pueblo chiefs were alarmed that their traditions and customs were disappearing.
Under the leadership of Po’pay, the Pueblo people:
Mobilized warriors.
Planned an organized attack against the Spanish settlers and missionaries.
4. Key Concepts
Po’pay – Leader of the Pueblo rebellion.
Forced religious conversion – Attempt to impose Christianity on Indigenous peoples.
Resistance – Native efforts to preserve culture, traditions, and religion.
📌 Po’pay’s Rebellion — Notes (1680)
1. Beginning of the Revolt
Date: August 1680
Participants: Pueblo warriors from multiple villages.
Method:
Gathered at villages to attack Spanish settlers and priests.
Destroyed churches.
Attacks were carefully planned so victims could not escape or warn Spanish authorities.
2. Attack on Santa Fe
October 9, 1680: Pueblo army attacked Santa Fe, the Spanish colonial capital.
Spanish settlers fled.
The Pueblos destroyed the city and built a religious chamber over its ruins.
3. Outcome
Freedom from Spanish rule for about 10 years.
Successfully resisted Spanish reconquest attempts during this period.
4. Decline
By 1690, the Pueblos were weakened due to:
Drought
Attacks by Apache and Comanche tribes
Spanish forces were able to regain control of New Mexico.
5. Key Concepts
Po’pay – Leader of the Pueblo revolt.
Resistance through organization – Pueblos coordinated attacks across multiple villages.
Temporary independence – Pueblos controlled New Mexico for a decade.
Challenges – Environmental factors and rival tribes eventually allowed Spanish reconquest.
📌 The Columbian Exchange — Notes
1. Definition
The Columbian Exchange refers to the transfer of crops, livestock, people, ideas, and diseases between the Old World (Europe, Asia, Africa) and the New World (the Americas).
Term coined in 1972 by historian Alfred Crosby (University of Texas).
Named after Christopher Columbus, though America itself was not named after him.
2. Components of the Exchange
Crops
From Americas to Europe: maize, potatoes, tomatoes, cacao, tobacco
From Europe to Americas: wheat, rice, sugarcane, coffee
Livestock
From Europe to Americas: horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, goats
Ideas and Technology
Farming techniques, tools, religious practices, and new forms of government.
People
European settlers, African slaves, and Indigenous populations.
Diseases
From Europe to Americas: smallpox, measles, influenza
Often devastating for Indigenous peoples with no immunity.
3. Significance
Cultural exchange: Introduced new foods, animals, and ways of life to both worlds.
Population impact: Diseases caused massive decline of Indigenous populations in the Americas.
Economic impact: Increased trade and wealth for Europe; transformed global agriculture.
Long-term effect: Connected two previously isolated continents, reshaping the world socially, economically, and biologically.
📌 European Advantages in the Americas
Military technology:
Europeans: swords, guns, mounted on horses
Indigenous peoples: fought on foot with wooden spears
Combat advantage: European weapons and horses gave them a major edge.
Disease impact:
Europeans brought smallpox, typhus, influenza, etc.
Indigenous peoples had no immunity, causing massive deaths.
Within a decade, nearly one-third of native populations in contact with Spanish were wiped out.
📌 Columbian Exchange – Crops and Animals
From Old World → New World
Crops: coffee, tea, sugarcane, wheat, apples, bananas, onions, carrots, citrus
Animals: horses, cattle, sheep, chickens, swine
From New World → Old World
Crops: corn, tomatoes, squash, pumpkins, peanuts, potatoes, avocados, pineapples, chilies, tobacco, vanilla, cacao
Animals: turkeys
Disease: Some sources suggest syphilis was transmitted from natives to Europeans
📌 Social and Cultural Impact
Interracial Unions
European men often had children with Indigenous and African women.
Resulting racial groups:
Mestizos: European + Indigenous
Mulatto: European + African
Zambo: African + Indigenous
Reason for Patterns
Most early settlers were men (~90% of 3,000 Spaniards in 16th century)
Later, more complex racial mixtures developed as more Europeans and Africans arrived.
⭐ Key Points
European military and disease advantages reshaped populations.
Columbian Exchange transformed diets, agriculture, and economies globally.
Interracial unions created new cultural and racial blends, permanently altering the demographics of the Americas.