Developmental Psychology adv PP

Page 1: Developmental Psychology

Overview

• Focus on the study of human development across the lifespan.

• Examines psychological changes from conception to old age.

Page 2: Research Methods in Developmental Psychology

Types of Research

• Cross-Sectional Research: Involves comparing individuals of different ages at a single point in time. This method helps to identify age-related differences.

• Longitudinal Research: Studies the same individuals over a prolonged period to observe changes and developments across time.

Page 3: Teratogens and Their Effects

Teratogens

• Defined as chemicals or agents that can cause harm to a fetus when ingested or contracted during pregnancy.

• Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): A severe condition resulting from maternal alcohol consumption, leading to physical deformities and cognitive impairments.

• Fetal Alcohol Effect: Milder than FAS, showing later symptoms including learning disabilities and behavioral issues without immediate indicators during infancy.

Page 4: Child Reflexes

Reflexes for Survival

• Root Reflex: Activated by stroking the mouth's corner, causing the baby to turn and open its mouth to feed.

• Suck Reflex: Develops around the 32nd week of pregnancy, allowing the infant to suck when the mouth's roof is stimulated.

• Moro Reflex: A startle reflex where infants throw their limbs out and retract them upon quick movements or loud noises, lasting about 5-6 months.

• Tonic Neck Reflex: Occurs when a baby's head turns to one side, extending the corresponding arm and bending the opposite arm; persists for about 6-7 months.

• Grasp Reflex: Initiated by stroking the palm, resulting in the baby closing their fingers; lasts until about 5-6 months.

• Babinski Reflex: The big toe bends back when the foot's sole is stroked, present until around 2 years old.

• Step Reflex: Appears as a walking or dancing motion when a baby is held upright with feet on a surface.

Page 5: Importance of Reflexes

Innate Reflexes

• Reflexes are inborn automatic responses that disappear with development. They indicate a degree of instinctual behavior absent in humans compared to other animals.

• Major reflexes include:

  • Rooting: Seeking food by turning to the touch.

  • Sucking: Initiated by placing an object in the mouth.

  • Grasping: Clenching objects placed in the palm or foot pad.

  • Moro: Startle response to sudden stimuli.

  • Babinski: Toe spreading reaction when the foot's sole is stimulated.

Page 6: Parenting Influences

Key Theorists

• Konrad Lorenz: Introduced the concept of imprinting, notably observed in geese that attach to the first moving object they see.

• Harry Harlow: Conducted experiments on baby monkeys showing preference for a comforting cloth mother over a food-providing but non-comforting mother, emphasizing attachment's importance.

Page 7: Mary Ainsworth and Attachment Theory

Attachment Research

• Conducted the Strange Situation experiment to analyze infant attachment styles by observing reactions to separations and reunions with caregivers.

Page 8: Ainsworth's Four Attachment Styles

Types of Attachment

1. Secure: Confident that their needs will be met.

2. Anxious/Ambivalent: Uncertain about their needs being met; seeks comfort.

3. Avoidant/Dismissive: Seeks independence, believing their needs will not be met.

4. Fearful/Avoidant: Desires relationships but is fearful of closeness.

Page 9: Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner's Framework

• Describes how individual development is shaped by interconnected environmental systems:

  • Microsystem: Immediate environment (family, peers).

  • Mesosystem: Interrelations between different microsystems (e.g., home and school).

  • Exosystem: External environments affecting development indirectly (e.g., parent's work).

  • Macrosystem: Broader societal influences (culture, economy).

  • Chronosystem: Time-related dimensions (changes over lifespan).

Page 10: Detailed Description of Ecological Systems

System Definitions

• Microsystem: Closest environment affecting development directly.

• Mesosystem: Interactions between different microsystems.

• Exosystem: External influences that indirectly affect the individual.

• Macrosystem: Societal norms, beliefs, and values impacting development.

• Chronosystem: Historical and transitional changes impacting individual growth.

Page 11: Diana Baumrind's Parenting Styles

Classifications

• Authoritarian: High demands, low responsiveness; strict rules.

• Permissive: Overslenient, few rules, high warmth.

• Neglectful: Uninvolved; minimal guidance or nurturing.

• Authoritative: Balanced approach with clear expectations and nurturing support.

Page 12: Summary of Parenting Styles

Parenting Styles Definition

• Authoritarian: Emphasizes strict obedience over discussion.

• Permissive: Lacks clear guidelines; passive in discipline.

• Authoritative: Sets consistent standards while using praise and explanation for punishments.

• Neglectful: Demonstrates little interest in child’s needs.

Page 13: Stage Theories of Development

Main Concepts

• Propose that human development occurs in defined, sequential stages.

• Stages are characterized by unique behaviors and milestones.

• Jean Piaget: Notable example, introducing stages from sensorimotor to formal operational stages.

Page 14: Freud's Psychosexual Stages

Stages Overview

• Freud outlined five stages:

  1. Oral: Infants derive pleasure through the mouth.

  2. Anal: Associated with toilet training and control.

  3. Phallic: Involves awareness of gender and family dynamics (Oedipus and Electra complexes).

  4. Latency: Calm period of low psychosexual anxiety.

  5. Genital: Mature sexual intimacy emerges.

Page 15: Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Development

Eight Stages

• Each stage presents a psychosocial crisis requiring resolution:

  1. Trust vs. Mistrust

  2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

  3. Initiative vs. Guilt

  4. Industry vs. Inferiority

  5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

  6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

  7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

  8. Integrity vs. Despair.

Page 16: Erikson's Psychosocial Stages Explained

Focus and Significance

• Emphasizes social interaction and cultural influences on development.

• Each stage presents critical conflicts that shape personality and development trajectory.

Page 17: Detailed Psychosocial Stages

Breakdown of Stages

• Provides the age range and main tasks for successful resolution:

  • Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy)

  • Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame (Early Childhood)

  • Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool)

  • Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age)

  • Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)

  • Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood)

  • Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)

  • Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Old Age)

Page 18: Summary of Erikson's Stages

Stages and Outcomes

• Stages are characterized by developmental tasks linked to social relationships, purpose, and identity. Critical for understanding both positive resolutions and the implications of failure at each stage.

Page 19: Erik Erikson’s Contributions

Psychosocial Development

• Highlights that each life stage presents unique challenges that influence a person's identity and relationships.

Page 20: Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development

Piaget's Stages

• Outlines four stages that represent a child's cognitive abilities evolving from birth to adolescence:

  1. Sensorimotor: Learning through senses and actions.

  2. Preoperational: Development of language and symbolic thinking.

  3. Concrete Operational: Logical thinking about concrete events.

  4. Formal Operational: Abstract reasoning capabilities.

Page 21: Overview of Piaget's Cognitive Stages

Piaget’s Theoretical Framework

• Identifies four key cognitive development stages with approximate age correlates:

  • Sensorimotor (0-2 years)

  • Preoperational (2-7 years)

  • Concrete Operational (7-11 years)

  • Formal Operational (12 years and up)

Page 22: Accommodation and Assimilation

Cognitive Processes Explained

• Assimilation: Integrating new experiences into existing frameworks.

• Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas to incorporate new information.

Page 23: Sensorimotor Stage

Key Characteristics

• Focuses on sensory exploration; occurs from birth to 2 years.

• Critical milestone: Understanding of object permanence.

Page 24: Preoperational Stage

Characteristics of Thought

• Ages 2-7; children use symbols and engage in pretend play.

• Marked by egocentrism and misunderstanding of conservation.

Page 25: Concrete Operational Stage

Logical Thinking Development

• Ages 7-11; children can logically reason about concrete situations.

• They understand conservation, classification, and can order items logically.

Page 26: Formal Operational Stage

Advanced Cognitive Abilities

• Typically occurs from age 12 onward; individuals can engage in abstract and hypothetical thought processes.

• Develops skills like planning, logical reasoning, and problem-solving.

Page 27: Criticisms of Piaget's Theory

Considerations

• Criticism for underestimating children's abilities; lack of attention to language capacity was noted.

• Alternate theories like Information Processing Theory emerged as alternatives to Piaget's model.

Page 28: Piaget's Concepts of Conservation

Key Conservation Types

1. Volume: Understanding liquid volume remains constant despite changes in shape.

2. Number: Recognizing equal quantities even when spacing is adjusted.

3. Matter: Comprehending mass consistency regardless of shape changes.

4. Length: Acknowledging that lengths can be deceptive based on perspective.

Page 29: Lawrence Kohlberg's Moral Development

Stages of Moral Reasoning

• Introduces six stages of moral reasoning grouped into three major levels:

  • Preconventional, Conventional, Post-conventional.

• Each stage denotes a higher moral reasoning ability and aligns with cognitive development.

Page 30: Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Development

Detailed Stages

• Preconventional: Focused on self-interest and avoiding punishment.

• Conventional: Emphasizes societal expectations and social norms.

• Post-Conventional: Involves personal ethics and principles beyond social conventions.

Page 31: Summary of Kohlberg's Moral Stages

Types of Moral Reasoning

• A broad classification of how moral reasoning evolves through different life stages:

  • Self-Interest (Pre-Conventional)

  • Good Boy Attitude (Conventional)

  • Social Contract and Universal Principles (Post-conventional)

Page 32: Kohlberg’s Ethical Principles

Expanded Levels

1. Obedience and Punishment: Avoiding punishment by obeying rules.

2. Self-Interest: Seeking personal gains through actions.

3. Interpersonal Accord: Maintaining relationships and avoiding conflict.

4. Authority and Social Order: Emphasizing fixed laws and order.

5. Social Contract: Valuing mutual benefit and individual rights.

6. Universal Ethical Principles: Bases morality on abstract principles.

Page 33: Self-Defined Ethics by Kohlberg

Characteristics

• Individuals at the post-conventional level create personal ethical codes that guide their moral reasoning and actions.

Page 34: Gender Development

Gender Schema Theory

• Suggests individuals internalize cultural messages about gender into cognitive frameworks that guide behavior.

Page 35: Gender's Influence

Psychosocial Factors

• Gender Psychosocial Theory: Examines how social and cultural factors influence gender identity.

• Gender Social Cognitive Theory: Focuses on learning gender roles through observation and interaction.

Page 36: Key Gender Concepts

Understanding Gender Development

• Gender Schema: Cognitive framework for understanding gender norms.

• Gender Typing: Acquisition of gender-specific behaviors through social learning.

• Gender Stereotypes: Oversimplified beliefs dictating characteristics linked to genders.

• Gender Identity: Individual's internal sense of gender.

Page 37: Elements of Language

Foundations of Language

• Phonemes: Smallest units of sound that distinguish words.

• Morpheme: Smallest units of language carrying meaning, can be entire words or fragments like prefixes and suffixes.

Page 38: Phonemes and Morphemes in Language

Articulation

• Phonemes are the basic sound units; morphemes are meaningful components formed by phonemes. Words are constructed from these elements.

Page 39: Word Processing

Representation of Words

• Demonstrates the various dimensions of understanding words in terms of sounds and segments impacting communication.

Page 40: Syntax

Grammatical Structure

• Syntax encompasses the rules governing word order and organization within sentences, forming the foundation of grammar.

Page 41: Stages of Language Development

Developmental Stages

1. Pre-Speech Stage: 0-6 months

2. Babbling Stage: 6-8 months

3. One-Word Stage: 9-18 months (Holophrastic)

4. Combining Words Stage: 18-36 months (Telegraphic)

Page 42: Language Age Markers

Age Milestones

• Lists the progression of language development from cooing to multi-word stages over early childhood.

Page 43: Overgeneralization in Language

Language Learning Errors

• As children learn language rules, they sometimes misapply them, leading to errors such as incorrect verb conjugations.

Page 44: Noam Chomsky's Contribution

Language Acquisition Device Theory

• Proposes that humans are born with an innate capacity to acquire language, supporting the rapid language development observed in children.

Page 45: Chomsky’s Influential Concepts

Key Theories

• Innatist Theory: Belief in prewired grammatical structures.

• Critical Period: Essential phase for optimal language acquisition.

Page 46: Universal Grammar

Chomsky’s Hypothesis

• Suggests that underlying grammatical structures are common across all languages, supporting the innate theories of language learning.

Page 47: Whorf's Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

Language Influence on Thought

• Proposes how language shapes cognition and perception, impacting how individuals experience reality.

Page 48: Whorf’s Insights on Language

Key Contributions

• Explores the extent to which language influences thought processes and frames understanding of experiences.

Page 49: Summary of Linguistic Relativity

Definition and Implications

• Suggests that language structures not only facilitate communication but also influence cognition, perception of relationships, and societal constructs of identity and roles.