Developmental Psychology adv PP
Page 1: Developmental Psychology
Overview
Focus on the study of human development across the lifespan.
Examines psychological changes from conception to old age.
Page 2: Research Methods in Developmental Psychology
Types of Research
Cross-Sectional Research: Involves comparing individuals of different ages at a single point in time. This method helps to identify age-related differences.
Longitudinal Research: Studies the same individuals over a prolonged period to observe changes and developments across time.
Page 3: Teratogens and Their Effects
Teratogens
Defined as chemicals or agents that can cause harm to a fetus when ingested or contracted during pregnancy.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): A severe condition resulting from maternal alcohol consumption, leading to physical deformities and cognitive impairments.
Fetal Alcohol Effect: Milder than FAS, showing later symptoms including learning disabilities and behavioral issues without immediate indicators during infancy.
Page 4: Child Reflexes
Reflexes for Survival
Root Reflex: Activated by stroking the mouth's corner, causing the baby to turn and open its mouth to feed.
Suck Reflex: Develops around the 32nd week of pregnancy, allowing the infant to suck when the mouth's roof is stimulated.
Moro Reflex: A startle reflex where infants throw their limbs out and retract them upon quick movements or loud noises, lasting about 5-6 months.
Tonic Neck Reflex: Occurs when a baby's head turns to one side, extending the corresponding arm and bending the opposite arm; persists for about 6-7 months.
Grasp Reflex: Initiated by stroking the palm, resulting in the baby closing their fingers; lasts until about 5-6 months.
Babinski Reflex: The big toe bends back when the foot's sole is stroked, present until around 2 years old.
Step Reflex: Appears as a walking or dancing motion when a baby is held upright with feet on a surface.
Page 5: Importance of Reflexes
Innate Reflexes
Reflexes are inborn automatic responses that disappear with development. They indicate a degree of instinctual behavior absent in humans compared to other animals.
Major reflexes include:
Rooting: Seeking food by turning to the touch.
Sucking: Initiated by placing an object in the mouth.
Grasping: Clenching objects placed in the palm or foot pad.
Moro: Startle response to sudden stimuli.
Babinski: Toe spreading reaction when the foot's sole is stimulated.
Page 6: Parenting Influences
Key Theorists
Konrad Lorenz: Introduced the concept of imprinting, notably observed in geese that attach to the first moving object they see.
Harry Harlow: Conducted experiments on baby monkeys showing preference for a comforting cloth mother over a food-providing but non-comforting mother, emphasizing attachment's importance.
Page 7: Mary Ainsworth and Attachment Theory
Attachment Research
Conducted the Strange Situation experiment to analyze infant attachment styles by observing reactions to separations and reunions with caregivers.
Page 8: Ainsworth's Four Attachment Styles
Types of Attachment
Secure: Confident that their needs will be met.
Anxious/Ambivalent: Uncertain about their needs being met; seeks comfort.
Avoidant/Dismissive: Seeks independence, believing their needs will not be met.
Fearful/Avoidant: Desires relationships but is fearful of closeness.
Page 9: Ecological Systems Theory
Bronfenbrenner's Framework
Describes how individual development is shaped by interconnected environmental systems:
Microsystem: Immediate environment (family, peers).
Mesosystem: Interrelations between different microsystems (e.g., home and school).
Exosystem: External environments affecting development indirectly (e.g., parent's work).
Macrosystem: Broader societal influences (culture, economy).
Chronosystem: Time-related dimensions (changes over lifespan).
Page 10: Detailed Description of Ecological Systems
System Definitions
Microsystem: Closest environment affecting development directly.
Mesosystem: Interactions between different microsystems.
Exosystem: External influences that indirectly affect the individual.
Macrosystem: Societal norms, beliefs, and values impacting development.
Chronosystem: Historical and transitional changes impacting individual growth.
Page 11: Diana Baumrind's Parenting Styles
Classifications
Authoritarian: High demands, low responsiveness; strict rules.
Permissive: Overslenient, few rules, high warmth.
Neglectful: Uninvolved; minimal guidance or nurturing.
Authoritative: Balanced approach with clear expectations and nurturing support.
Page 12: Summary of Parenting Styles
Parenting Styles Definition
Authoritarian: Emphasizes strict obedience over discussion.
Permissive: Lacks clear guidelines; passive in discipline.
Authoritative: Sets consistent standards while using praise and explanation for punishments.
Neglectful: Demonstrates little interest in child’s needs.
Page 13: Stage Theories of Development
Main Concepts
Propose that human development occurs in defined, sequential stages.
Stages are characterized by unique behaviors and milestones.
Jean Piaget: Notable example, introducing stages from sensorimotor to formal operational stages.
Page 14: Freud's Psychosexual Stages
Stages Overview
Freud outlined five stages:
Oral: Infants derive pleasure through the mouth.
Anal: Associated with toilet training and control.
Phallic: Involves awareness of gender and family dynamics (Oedipus and Electra complexes).
Latency: Calm period of low psychosexual anxiety.
Genital: Mature sexual intimacy emerges.
Page 15: Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Development
Eight Stages
Each stage presents a psychosocial crisis requiring resolution:
Trust vs. Mistrust
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Initiative vs. Guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Integrity vs. Despair.
Page 16: Erikson's Psychosocial Stages Explained
Focus and Significance
Emphasizes social interaction and cultural influences on development.
Each stage presents critical conflicts that shape personality and development trajectory.
Page 17: Detailed Psychosocial Stages
Breakdown of Stages
Provides the age range and main tasks for successful resolution:
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy)
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame (Early Childhood)
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool)
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age)
Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood)
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Old Age)
Page 18: Summary of Erikson's Stages
Stages and Outcomes
Stages are characterized by developmental tasks linked to social relationships, purpose, and identity. Critical for understanding both positive resolutions and the implications of failure at each stage.
Page 19: Erik Erikson’s Contributions
Psychosocial Development
Highlights that each life stage presents unique challenges that influence a person's identity and relationships.
Page 20: Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development
Piaget's Stages
Outlines four stages that represent a child's cognitive abilities evolving from birth to adolescence:
Sensorimotor: Learning through senses and actions.
Preoperational: Development of language and symbolic thinking.
Concrete Operational: Logical thinking about concrete events.
Formal Operational: Abstract reasoning capabilities.
Page 21: Overview of Piaget's Cognitive Stages
Piaget’s Theoretical Framework
Identifies four key cognitive development stages with approximate age correlates:
Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
Preoperational (2-7 years)
Concrete Operational (7-11 years)
Formal Operational (12 years and up)
Page 22: Accommodation and Assimilation
Cognitive Processes Explained
Assimilation: Integrating new experiences into existing frameworks.
Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas to incorporate new information.
Page 23: Sensorimotor Stage
Key Characteristics
Focuses on sensory exploration; occurs from birth to 2 years.
Critical milestone: Understanding of object permanence.
Page 24: Preoperational Stage
Characteristics of Thought
Ages 2-7; children use symbols and engage in pretend play.
Marked by egocentrism and misunderstanding of conservation.
Page 25: Concrete Operational Stage
Logical Thinking Development
Ages 7-11; children can logically reason about concrete situations.
They understand conservation, classification, and can order items logically.
Page 26: Formal Operational Stage
Advanced Cognitive Abilities
Typically occurs from age 12 onward; individuals can engage in abstract and hypothetical thought processes.
Develops skills like planning, logical reasoning, and problem-solving.
Page 27: Criticisms of Piaget's Theory
Considerations
Criticism for underestimating children's abilities; lack of attention to language capacity was noted.
Alternate theories like Information Processing Theory emerged as alternatives to Piaget's model.
Page 28: Piaget's Concepts of Conservation
Key Conservation Types
Volume: Understanding liquid volume remains constant despite changes in shape.
Number: Recognizing equal quantities even when spacing is adjusted.
Matter: Comprehending mass consistency regardless of shape changes.
Length: Acknowledging that lengths can be deceptive based on perspective.
Page 29: Lawrence Kohlberg's Moral Development
Stages of Moral Reasoning
Introduces six stages of moral reasoning grouped into three major levels:
Preconventional, Conventional, Post-conventional.
Each stage denotes a higher moral reasoning ability and aligns with cognitive development.
Page 30: Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Development
Detailed Stages
Preconventional: Focused on self-interest and avoiding punishment.
Conventional: Emphasizes societal expectations and social norms.
Post-Conventional: Involves personal ethics and principles beyond social conventions.
Page 31: Summary of Kohlberg's Moral Stages
Types of Moral Reasoning
A broad classification of how moral reasoning evolves through different life stages:
Self-Interest (Pre-Conventional)
Good Boy Attitude (Conventional)
Social Contract and Universal Principles (Post-conventional)
Page 32: Kohlberg’s Ethical Principles
Expanded Levels
Obedience and Punishment: Avoiding punishment by obeying rules.
Self-Interest: Seeking personal gains through actions.
Interpersonal Accord: Maintaining relationships and avoiding conflict.
Authority and Social Order: Emphasizing fixed laws and order.
Social Contract: Valuing mutual benefit and individual rights.
Universal Ethical Principles: Bases morality on abstract principles.
Page 33: Self-Defined Ethics by Kohlberg
Characteristics
Individuals at the post-conventional level create personal ethical codes that guide their moral reasoning and actions.
Page 34: Gender Development
Gender Schema Theory
Suggests individuals internalize cultural messages about gender into cognitive frameworks that guide behavior.
Page 35: Gender's Influence
Psychosocial Factors
Gender Psychosocial Theory: Examines how social and cultural factors influence gender identity.
Gender Social Cognitive Theory: Focuses on learning gender roles through observation and interaction.
Page 36: Key Gender Concepts
Understanding Gender Development
Gender Schema: Cognitive framework for understanding gender norms.
Gender Typing: Acquisition of gender-specific behaviors through social learning.
Gender Stereotypes: Oversimplified beliefs dictating characteristics linked to genders.
Gender Identity: Individual's internal sense of gender.
Page 37: Elements of Language
Foundations of Language
Phonemes: Smallest units of sound that distinguish words.
Morpheme: Smallest units of language carrying meaning, can be entire words or fragments like prefixes and suffixes.
Page 38: Phonemes and Morphemes in Language
Articulation
Phonemes are the basic sound units; morphemes are meaningful components formed by phonemes. Words are constructed from these elements.
Page 39: Word Processing
Representation of Words
Demonstrates the various dimensions of understanding words in terms of sounds and segments impacting communication.
Page 40: Syntax
Grammatical Structure
Syntax encompasses the rules governing word order and organization within sentences, forming the foundation of grammar.
Page 41: Stages of Language Development
Developmental Stages
Pre-Speech Stage: 0-6 months
Babbling Stage: 6-8 months
One-Word Stage: 9-18 months (Holophrastic)
Combining Words Stage: 18-36 months (Telegraphic)
Page 42: Language Age Markers
Age Milestones
Lists the progression of language development from cooing to multi-word stages over early childhood.
Page 43: Overgeneralization in Language
Language Learning Errors
As children learn language rules, they sometimes misapply them, leading to errors such as incorrect verb conjugations.
Page 44: Noam Chomsky's Contribution
Language Acquisition Device Theory
Proposes that humans are born with an innate capacity to acquire language, supporting the rapid language development observed in children.
Page 45: Chomsky’s Influential Concepts
Key Theories
Innatist Theory: Belief in prewired grammatical structures.
Critical Period: Essential phase for optimal language acquisition.
Page 46: Universal Grammar
Chomsky’s Hypothesis
Suggests that underlying grammatical structures are common across all languages, supporting the innate theories of language learning.
Page 47: Whorf's Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
Language Influence on Thought
Proposes how language shapes cognition and perception, impacting how individuals experience reality.
Page 48: Whorf’s Insights on Language
Key Contributions
Explores the extent to which language influences thought processes and frames understanding of experiences.
Page 49: Summary of Linguistic Relativity
Definition and Implications
Suggests that language structures not only facilitate communication but also influence cognition, perception of relationships, and societal constructs of identity and roles.