Key Concepts: Ijtihad, Taqlid, Hadith, Imams, and Authority

Ijtihad (Istihad)

Ijtihad: intellectual effort to interpret Islamic law; grants authority to interpret original texts.
Distinct from taqlid (imitating another’s interpretation).
A Mujtahid is a master jurist with license to interpret; authority earned through scholarship and peer recognition.

Taqlid: following the teachings of a recognized founder or school without re-deriving rulings.
Mukallid: a follower who imitates; contrasts with the Mujtahid who creates new interpretations.

Isnad: chain of transmission used to verify hadith authenticity (who heard from whom).
Hadith: reports of Prophet sayings, actions, or approvals.
Muhaddith: Hadith scholar who evaluates and grades reports (sound/weak/fabricated).
Sunnah: normative practice of the Prophet; not every hadith becomes Sunnah; requires verification.

Ijma: consensus of scholars on a point of law or interpretation.
It is broader than Hadith and reflects majority scholarly agreement across issues.

Imam: three senses – authority in interpretation, political leadership, and prayer leader; context matters.
Mujtahid: a master jurist with demonstrated capability to interpret the law; recognized by peers and students.
Path to mastery: scholarly reputation, publication, teaching, and following among students.

Sunni schools (Madhahib): Malik (Medina), Hanafi, Shafi'i, Hanbali.
Authority is often within a school; peers within the same madhhab recognize rulings.
Istihad existed historically but high barriers emphasize taqlid within a school.
Inter-school authority is limited; cross-acknowledgment exists but each school maintains its methodology.

Imams: central spiritual and interpretive authority in early Shi'ism (Ali as first Imam); 12 Imams in total in Twelver Shi'ism.
After the 12th Imam went into occultation, living clerics (Ayatollahs) become the primary authorities.
Taqlid in Shi'ism follows a living authority (Marja') who issues rulings and guidance.
All Imams are considered divinely guided; in practice, later guidance comes from recognized mujtahids within Shi'a communities.

Ayatollah: senior Shia cleric; a title for a high-level mujtahid; often a marja' for followers.
Marja' taqlid: a living source of emulation for followers.
Mullah: generic term for a cleric; usage varies by region and context.
Ulama/Alim: learned scholars; Ulama is the plural term.

Quran: primary divine source.
Sunnah: normative practice derived from Hadith; together with Quran form primary sources for rulings.
Hadith: reports that require vetting; not all reports are equally authoritative.
Muhaddith: Hadith expert who collects, scrutinizes, and grades Hadith literature.

Hadith reports contribute to Sunnah when authenticated and repeatedly practiced.
Jurists rely on both Quran and Hadith (with rigorous evaluation) to derive rulings.
The process includes distinguishing sound reports from weak or fabricated ones.

Talaq (divorce): triple talaq in one sitting ends the marriage in many Sunni interpretations; some schools or scenarios treat it differently; Shia practice varies by school.
Witnesses for marriage/termination: Sunni practices often require two male witnesses for marriage; some Shi'a schools emphasize different requirements for ending a marriage.
Hijab and modesty: differing interpretations exist; source-based debates continue; contextual readings of Qur'an and Hadith are common.

Sunni: authority often resides within the four madhhabs; consensus and peer recognition are important; taqlid within a school is common.
Shi'a: living authorities (Ayatollahs) guide followers in the absence of the Imam; taqlid to a marja' is central.
Across both traditions: Ikhtiyar (individual jurisdiction) exists but is balanced by community and scholarly frameworks; the aim is legitimate interpretation within established epistemic boundaries.

Ijtihad, Taqlid, Mujtahid, Muḥaddith, Isnad, Hadith, Sunnah, Ijma, Imam, Ulama, Mullah, Ayatollah, Marja', Twelver Imams, Occultation